The following thesis work was performed by Tobias Bäckman between 2018-01-15 – 2018-06-01 on behalf of Deva Mecaneyes. Deva Mecaneyes had identified a need and a possible application area for additive manufacturing based on the Markforged Mark Two 3D-printer which they had purchased. However, many question marks remained regarding how the materials from the printer would behave. How to design against this manufacturing method and which applications that could be beneficial for the company. At the start of the project it was identified that Deva Mecaneyes main limitations for not implementing 3D-manufacturing more extensive in their product development process was partly the lack of experience of additive manufacturing methods but mainly due to the lack of reliable material data for the printed parts. Based on this, three research questions were formulated. These research questions discuss how to replace traditional manufacturing methods, which material relationships are possible to identify, and which factors should be considered when designing against additive manufacturing. The bulk of the work thus consisted of producing material data for materials that are compatible with Markforged mark Two. This was done based on ASTM standards that treat tensile tests, bending tests and fatigue tests. Two already existing products from Deva Mecaneyes in the field of lifting gear for manufacturing industries were selected with the purpose to redesign these products to be manufactured with the Mark Two 3D-printer instead. In this way, an alternative way for these applications could be showed by replacing the traditional manufacturing methods with additive manufacturing methods. The reconstructed lifting gear was also manufactured to be verified against the produced material data but also to demonstrate improvement or deterioration against the existing lifting gear. The measurable goals for the project were to prove cost and time reduction by at least 50% by replacing the traditional manufacturing methods with additive manufacturing methods while maintaining the same reliability. The result demonstrated two redesigned lifting gears with many improvement areas. A great result that stood out was a cost reduction of approximately 80% and 90% respectively. Several material relationships have been identified during the work and new experiences regarding printed details have arisen. The author believes that the work, with addition to the accomplished goals, has laid a good ground to begin to understand the materials more and more and thus a good beginning to obtaining a reability from 3D-printed details. Which is a decisive factor to begin replacing the traditional manufacturing methods. / Följande examensarbete är utfört av Tobias Bäckman mellan 2018-01-15 – 2018-06-01 på uppdrag av företaget Deva Mecaneyes. Deva Mecaneyes hade identifierat ett behov och ett möjligt användningsområde för additiv tillverkning baserat på en 3D-skrivare av modellen Markforged mark Two som de köpt in. Dock kvarstod det många frågetecken hur materialen i de utskrivna detaljerna beter sig, hur man skall konstruera mot denna tillverkningsmetod samt vilka tillämpningsområden som skulle kunna vara fördelaktiga. Vid uppstart av projektet identifierades de största begränsningarna till varför Deva Mecaneys inte implementerar 3D- utskrifter mer omfattande i deras konstruktionsarbete som delvis den bristande erfarenheten av additiva tillverkningsmetoder, men främst på grund av avsaknaden av trovärdig materialdata och beräkningsunderlag att tillämpa för fysiska 3D-utskrivna detaljer. Utifrån detta formulerades tre stycken forskningsfrågor. Dessa forskningsfrågor behandlar hur man skulle kunna ersätta traditionella tillverkningsmetoder, vilka materialsamband som är möjliga att identifiera samt vilka faktorer som bör tas hänsyn till vid konstruktion mot additiva tillverkningsmetoder.Huvuddelen av arbetet har därmed bestått av att producera materialdata för materialen som är kompatibla med Markforged Mark Two. Detta har skett baserat på ASTM-standarder som behandlar dragprover, böjprover och utmattningsprover.Två befintliga produkter från Deva Mecaneyes inom området lyftredskap valdes sedan ut för att omdesignas mot additiva tillverkningsmetoder. På så vis redovisas en alternativ väg att gå genom att ersätta de traditionella tillverkningsmetoderna med additiva tillverkningsmetoder. De omkonstruerade lyftredskapen tillverkades även för att dels verifieras mot den framtagna materialdatan men även för att redogöra förbättring alternativt försämring mot de befintliga lyftredskapen.De mätbara målen för arbetet var att kunna påvisa kostnads och tidsreducering med 50% genom att byta ut de traditionella tillverkningsmetoderna mot additiva tillverkningsmetoder. Resultatet påvisade två omkonstruerade lyftredskap med många förbättringsområden. Där framförallt en kostnadsreducering på cirka 80% respektive 90% identifierades.Under arbetets gång har ett antal materialsamband kunnat identifieras och nya erfarenheter angående utskrivna detaljer från Markforged Mark Two har uppstått. Författaren anser att arbetet, utöver de uppfyllda målen, har lagt en god grund till att börja förstå materialen mer och mer och därmed en god början till att börja erhålla en tillförlitlighet hos 3D-utskrivna detaljer som är en avgörande faktor till att börja ersätta vissa av de traditionella tillverkningsmetoderna.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Steifigkeits- und Festigkeitsauslegung von mittels der Tailored Fiber Placement (TFP)-Technologie hergestellten Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden (FKV) am Beispiel eines einteiligen Rotors aus kohlenstofffaserverstärktem Epoxidharz (CFK) für den Einsatz in Turbomolekularpumpen (TMP) vorgestellt. Im Vergleich zu anderen textilen Fertigungsverfahren können mit Hilfe der TFP-Technologie Verstärkungsfaserrovings in der Ebene variabelaxial, d. h. mit ortsunabhängiger, frei wählbarer Richtung, definiert abgelegt werden. Die sticktechnische Fixierung der Rovings mit Hilfe eines Nähfadens führt zu Welligkeiten und Materialinhomogenitäten in TFP-basierten Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden (FKV). Dadurch werden die Materialeigenschaften beeinflusst. Mit Hilfe einer Prozessanalyse in Kombination mit morphologischen Untersuchungen werden in dieser Arbeit die welligkeitsinduzierenden Effekte in TFP-basierten FKV identifiziert und quantifiziert. Darauf aufbauend wird ein mesoskaliges Repräsentatives Volumenelement (RVE) einer TFP-Einheitszelle auf Basis von Finiten Elementen entwickelt. Mit Hilfe des RVE wird es erstmalig ermöglicht, die Dehnungs- und Spannungsverteilung sowie den lokalen Faservolumengehalt in TFP-basierten FKV zu berechnen und daraus wirklichkeitsnahe Materialkennwerte abzuleiten. Darüber hinaus wird anhand des RVE der Einfluss variierender TFP-Prozessparameter auf die resultierenden Steifigkeits- und Festigkeitseigenschaften analysiert. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss des unter Langzeitbelastung eintretenden Matrixkriechens auf die Materialeigenschaften von TFP-basierten FKV untersucht. Anhand der Entwicklungsschritte eines CFK-TMP-Rotordemonstrators werden die Besonderheiten beim Auslegungsprozess für Bauteile aus TFP-Strukturen verdeutlicht. Neben der Erläuterung der Lastfälle von TMP-Rotoren wird die Entwicklung eines lastfallangepassten Faserlayouts unter Berücksichtigung von geometrischen Restriktionen beschrieben. Im Rahmen der Spannungsanalyse auf Basis der Finite Elemente Methode (FEM) erfolgt die Integration der mittels des RVE bestimmten Materialdaten in das FE-Modell schichtweise, entsprechend der verwendeten TFP-Prozessparameter. Die mit dieser Vorgehensweise berechnete Versagensdrehzahl und die ermittelten Eigenfrequenzen konnten in experimentellen Untersuchungen erfolgreich validiert werden. Durch die Integration der ortsaufgelösten RVE-basierten Materialdaten wird erstmalig nicht nur die Struktursteifigkeit, sondern auch die Festigkeit ausgehend von einem variabelaxialen TFP-Ablagemuster in einem TFP-basierten Bauteil vorhergesagt. Mit dem entwickelten TMP-Rotordemonstrator kann die Versagensdrehzahl gegenüber dem Stand der Technik um 45 % gesteigert werden. In der Arbeit wird auch herausgestellt, welche Änderungen der Geometrie von TMP-Rotoren aus FKV nötig sind, um eine werkstoffgerechte, an die orthotropen Eigenschaften von FKV angepasste Gestaltung zu realisieren und damit die Nenndrehzahlen weiter steigern zu können. Diese Erkenntnisse dienen in verallgemeinerter Weise der werkstoffgerechten Auslegung und Fertigung von TFP-basierten FKV-Bauteilen.:Kurzfassung Symbol- und Abkürzungsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation und Problemstellung 1.2 Wissenschaftliche Zielstellung der Arbeit 1.3 Aufbau der Arbeit 2 Grundlagen 2.1 Einleitung 2.2 Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde 2.2.1 Einführung 2.2.2 Kohlenstofffaserverstärkte Epoxidharze 2.3 Elastizitätstheorie 2.3.1 Spannungen 2.3.2 Verzerrungen 2.3.3 Verallgemeinertes Hookesches Gesetz 2.4 Mechanik von rotationssymmetrisch belasteten Körpern 2.4.1 Herleitung der allgemeinen Zusammenhänge am Rotor 2.5 Berechnungsgrundlagen für Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde 2.5.1 Faservolumengehalt und Dichte 2.5.2 Grundelastizitätsgrößen einer UD-Schicht 2.5.3 Einfluss der Temperatur 2.5.4 Resultierende Eigenschaften der UD-Schicht 2.6 Festigkeitsnachweis von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden 2.7 Langzeitverhalten von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden 2.7.1 Kriechen und Relaxation 2.7.2 Einfluss der Langzeitbeanspruchung auf die Festigkeiten 2.7.3 Bestimmung der Langzeiteigenschaften 2.8 Finite-Elemente-Methode 2.9 Modalanalyse 2.9.1 Theoretische Grundlagen 2.9.2 Zyklische Symmetrie 2.9.3 Experimentelle Modalanalyse 2.10 Turbomolekularpumpen 2.10.1 Einleitung 2.10.2 Pumpmechanismus von Turbomolekularpumpstufen 3 Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde auf Basis der TFP-Technologie 3.1 Anforderungen hinsichtlich der Freiheitsgrade bei der Faserablage für Rotoren in Blisk-Bauweise 3.2 Die Tailored Fiber Placement-Technologie 3.2.1 Einführung und Merkmale der TFP-Technologie 3.2.2 In der TFP-Technologie verarbeitete Materialien 3.2.3 Verfahrensgrenzen der TFP-Technologie 3.2.4 Nähfadengehalt in TFP-Laminaten 3.2.5 Faservolumengehalt von TFP-Laminaten 3.3 Infiltrationsverfahren für TFP-basierte Preformen 4 Mikromechanische Betrachtungen an TFP-basierten FKV 4.1 Einführung 4.2 Materialeigenschaften von TFP-Strukturen - Stand der Forschung 4.2.1 TFP-Strukturen in Kombination mit duromeren Matrizes 4.2.2 TFP-Strukturen in Kombination mit thermoplastischen Matrizes 4.3 Analyse der Morphologie von TFP-Strukturen 4.3.1 Rovingwelligkeit bei der Rovingablage 4.3.2 Schliffbildanalyse 4.4 Modellaufbau des Repräsentativen Volumenelementes 4.4.1 Auf Basis des RVE ermittelte Materialeigenschaften von UD-TFP-Strukturen unter uniaxialer Zugbelastung in faserparalleler Richtung 4.4.2 Auf Basis des RVE ermittelte Materialeigenschaften von UD-TFP-Strukturen unter Querzug- bzw. Schubbelastung 4.5 Übertragung der RVE-Ergebnisse auf variabelaxiale TFP-Strukturen 4.6 Langzeiteigenschaften von TFP-Strukturen 4.7 Zusammenfassung der ermittelten Materialeigenschaften von TFP-Strukturen 5 Entwicklung eines TFP-basierten TMP-Rotordemonstrators aus CFK 5.1 Einführung 5.2 Geometrische Randbedingungen und Lastfälle in TMP-Rotoren 5.2.1 Geometrie des TMP-Rotordemonstrators 5.2.2 Lastfälle von TMP-Rotoren 5.3 Bauweisendefinition und strukturmechanische Auslegung des TMP-Rotors 5.3.1 Analytische Vorbetrachtungen 5.3.2 Definition der Bauweise 5.3.3 Dimensionierung des TFP-CFK-Rotors mit Hilfe der FEM 5.3.4 Herstellung des TFP-CFK-Rotordemonstrators 5.4 Experimentelle Validierung 5.4.1 Ermittlung der Versagensfrequenz 5.4.2 Experimentelle Modalanalyse am TFP-CFK-Rotor 5.5 Einordnung der entwickelten TMP-Rotorbauweise 5.5.1 Ausnutzung des Werkstoffpotenzials 5.5.2 Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf andere TMP-Rotorbauweisen 6 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 6.1 Zusammenfassung 6.2 Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis A Anhang / The present work demonstrates the stiffness and strength design of fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) made by the Tailored Fiber Placement (TFP) technology using the example of a a turbo molecular pump (TMP) rotor made of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resin (CFRP). In contrast to other textile preform manufacturing processes, the TFP technology enables the placement of reinforcement rovings in arbitrary direction according to an user defined design path. In this technology a double locked stitch in a zigzag stitch pattern is used to fixate the rovings. The fixation process leads to waviness and material inhomogeneities within the placed rovings resulting in reduced material properties in TFP-based fiber reinforced plastics. The wavinessinducing effects have been identified and quantified by detailed process analysis and morphological investigations. Subsequently, a meso-scaled representative volume element (RVE) of a TFP unit cell based on finite elements was developed. The RVE provides the opportunity to derive realistic material properties by calculating the stress and strain distribution as well as as the local fiber content in TFP-based FRP. In this work, the influence of different TFP process parameters on the resulting modulus and strength has been investigated using the RVE approach. Additionally, long term loading effects leading to a reduced matrix modulus were analyzed numerically with the RVE. Based on the development of the CFRP TMP rotor specific characteristics of the design process for components made of TFP are clarified. Besides the explanation of loading conditions of TMP rotors the progress of a load-adapted fiber layout considering geometrical restrictions is demonstrated. For the stress analysis based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) material data calculated with the RVE according to the applied TFP process parameters have been integrated into the FE model. The numerically determined failure speed and the calculated eigenfrequencies were successfully validated by experimental tests. By implementing TFP specific material data in the FE model, both, the strucural rigidity as well as the strength, were predicted for the first time in a TFP-based component. Compared to the state-of-the-art, the developed TMP rotor offers an increased failure speed by 45 %. Furthermore necessary geometric modifications for FRP based TMP rotors in order to achieve a material-specific design adapted to the orthotropic material properties and thus to further increase the nominal rotational speeds were shown. These findings provide in a generalized way for a material-specific design of TFP-based FRP components.:Kurzfassung Symbol- und Abkürzungsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation und Problemstellung 1.2 Wissenschaftliche Zielstellung der Arbeit 1.3 Aufbau der Arbeit 2 Grundlagen 2.1 Einleitung 2.2 Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde 2.2.1 Einführung 2.2.2 Kohlenstofffaserverstärkte Epoxidharze 2.3 Elastizitätstheorie 2.3.1 Spannungen 2.3.2 Verzerrungen 2.3.3 Verallgemeinertes Hookesches Gesetz 2.4 Mechanik von rotationssymmetrisch belasteten Körpern 2.4.1 Herleitung der allgemeinen Zusammenhänge am Rotor 2.5 Berechnungsgrundlagen für Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde 2.5.1 Faservolumengehalt und Dichte 2.5.2 Grundelastizitätsgrößen einer UD-Schicht 2.5.3 Einfluss der Temperatur 2.5.4 Resultierende Eigenschaften der UD-Schicht 2.6 Festigkeitsnachweis von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden 2.7 Langzeitverhalten von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden 2.7.1 Kriechen und Relaxation 2.7.2 Einfluss der Langzeitbeanspruchung auf die Festigkeiten 2.7.3 Bestimmung der Langzeiteigenschaften 2.8 Finite-Elemente-Methode 2.9 Modalanalyse 2.9.1 Theoretische Grundlagen 2.9.2 Zyklische Symmetrie 2.9.3 Experimentelle Modalanalyse 2.10 Turbomolekularpumpen 2.10.1 Einleitung 2.10.2 Pumpmechanismus von Turbomolekularpumpstufen 3 Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde auf Basis der TFP-Technologie 3.1 Anforderungen hinsichtlich der Freiheitsgrade bei der Faserablage für Rotoren in Blisk-Bauweise 3.2 Die Tailored Fiber Placement-Technologie 3.2.1 Einführung und Merkmale der TFP-Technologie 3.2.2 In der TFP-Technologie verarbeitete Materialien 3.2.3 Verfahrensgrenzen der TFP-Technologie 3.2.4 Nähfadengehalt in TFP-Laminaten 3.2.5 Faservolumengehalt von TFP-Laminaten 3.3 Infiltrationsverfahren für TFP-basierte Preformen 4 Mikromechanische Betrachtungen an TFP-basierten FKV 4.1 Einführung 4.2 Materialeigenschaften von TFP-Strukturen - Stand der Forschung 4.2.1 TFP-Strukturen in Kombination mit duromeren Matrizes 4.2.2 TFP-Strukturen in Kombination mit thermoplastischen Matrizes 4.3 Analyse der Morphologie von TFP-Strukturen 4.3.1 Rovingwelligkeit bei der Rovingablage 4.3.2 Schliffbildanalyse 4.4 Modellaufbau des Repräsentativen Volumenelementes 4.4.1 Auf Basis des RVE ermittelte Materialeigenschaften von UD-TFP-Strukturen unter uniaxialer Zugbelastung in faserparalleler Richtung 4.4.2 Auf Basis des RVE ermittelte Materialeigenschaften von UD-TFP-Strukturen unter Querzug- bzw. Schubbelastung 4.5 Übertragung der RVE-Ergebnisse auf variabelaxiale TFP-Strukturen 4.6 Langzeiteigenschaften von TFP-Strukturen 4.7 Zusammenfassung der ermittelten Materialeigenschaften von TFP-Strukturen 5 Entwicklung eines TFP-basierten TMP-Rotordemonstrators aus CFK 5.1 Einführung 5.2 Geometrische Randbedingungen und Lastfälle in TMP-Rotoren 5.2.1 Geometrie des TMP-Rotordemonstrators 5.2.2 Lastfälle von TMP-Rotoren 5.3 Bauweisendefinition und strukturmechanische Auslegung des TMP-Rotors 5.3.1 Analytische Vorbetrachtungen 5.3.2 Definition der Bauweise 5.3.3 Dimensionierung des TFP-CFK-Rotors mit Hilfe der FEM 5.3.4 Herstellung des TFP-CFK-Rotordemonstrators 5.4 Experimentelle Validierung 5.4.1 Ermittlung der Versagensfrequenz 5.4.2 Experimentelle Modalanalyse am TFP-CFK-Rotor 5.5 Einordnung der entwickelten TMP-Rotorbauweise 5.5.1 Ausnutzung des Werkstoffpotenzials 5.5.2 Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf andere TMP-Rotorbauweisen 6 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 6.1 Zusammenfassung 6.2 Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis A Anhang

Renewable energy production with wind turbines has been rising in the last 30 years and it is a crucial technology, which is necessary for the energy transition. As sustainable as the energy production of wind turbines is, the waste management of the blade material is not. Most of the blades end up on a landfill or get incinerated. There are different types of recycling methods, but the most commonly used is to shred the fibers into little pieces and reusing them for filler material in the concrete industry. This approach does not actually split up the blade material into its components but it is more of a downcycling. In this thesis, a new type of pyrolysis will be looked into, which splits up the blade material into its components namely glass fibers and plastic using molten salt. This process would make the glass fiber industry more sustainable by introducing a recycled glass fiber with minimal loss in quality. In a first step, the blade material will be examined more closely with a thermogravimetric analysis to find out what kind of plastic it is and what temperature would be necessary to pyrolyze it. This information will be used to conduct an experiment in a molten salt solution and determine the necessary reaction time and temperature. This data will be used to compare the costs of this method with shredding the material and the conventional pyrolysis. From the thermogravimetric analysis, it was possible to determine that the type of plastic used in this turbine was made out of epoxy. The maximum degredation of this material occurred at 380 ◦C. Not many experiments could be conducted in order to find the optimal conditions for the pyrolysis process due to difficulties with the furnace. Nevertheless, one sample was successfully pyrolyzed at a temperature of 400 ◦C with a residence time of 15 minutes. With the current market conditions in the recycled glass fibers industry, this product would be too expensive and the demand would be too little. However, the market is expected to grow in the next couple years due to rising interests in circular economy and governments introducing regulations. Nevertheless, it is necessary to increase the efficiency of the molten salt pyrolysis in order to be applicable to a bigger scale. More experiments should be conducted with cheaper molten salt in order to sink the costs of the process.

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Entwicklung eines neuartigen Ferti-gungsprozesses für hochfunktionalisierte Strukturbauteile in PFH-Technologie. Eigens für die Verarbeitung von FKV-Profilen wird das IHU/Spritzgießverfahren grundlegend analysiert und die einzelnen Pro-zessstufen durch den Einsatz geeigneter Prozessmedien und -parametrierungen modifiziert. Mit Hilfe umfangreicher analytischer und numerischer Berechnungen sowie erfolgreicher Umsetzung eines neuar-tigen Temperierungskonzeptes lassen sich erstmals FKV-Profile ohne den Einsatz von Barriereschichten, endkonturnah und reproduzierbar in seriellen Taktzeiten umformen. Zudem ist somit eine Funktionalisierung mittels Spritzgießen und ein gesamtheitliches Beherrschen des Hybrid-prozesses gegeben. Ein Vergleich der Verbindungsfestigkeiten mit hyb-riden Referenzbauteilen beweist, dass sich durch die stoffschlüssige Anbindung zeit- und kostenintensive Vorbehandlungen einsparen und gleichzeitig höhere Verbundqualitäten erzielen lassen. Um das PFH-Strukturbauteil mit montagegerechten Verbindungsschnittstellen zu werkstofflich andersgearteten Multimaterialstrukturen zu versehen, dient ein eigens entwickeltes prozesskomplementäres In-situ-Integrationsverfahren. Abschließend ist ein allgemeiner methodischer Ansatz für den technologischen Transfer und Adaption systematisch aufgeschlüsselt, sodass sich die einzelnen Entwicklungspfade nachvoll-ziehen lassen.:1 Einleitung 2 Zielsetzung 3 Stand der Wissenschaft und Technik 4 Anforderungen an einen faserverbund-gerechten IHU/Spritzgießprozess 5 Prozessentwicklung und Validierung 6 In-situ-Integrationsprozess für metallische Inserts 7 Konfiguration einer seriellen Fertigungstechnologie 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Anhänge / The goal of this thesis is the development of a new production technol-ogy for highly functional lightweight structural parts. Therefor the hy-droforming supported overmolding process was chosen as a suiting manufacturing process. By usage of analytical and numerical calcula-tions as well as adapting a new kind of temperature distribution con-cept, the new Polymer-FRP-Hbyrid-Technology is enabled to manufac-ture frp-profile based structural components without the need for a barrier layer. The final product possesses its’s final shape already and has no need for further machining processes. A comparison with state-of-the-art metal-plastic-hybrid bonding systems shows a way higher value for the new technology due to the adhesive bond between the tape and injection molding polymer. Furthermore, the technology was enhanced with a process implemented insert joining process. Finally, a methodical approach for the technology transfer is presented.:1 Einleitung 2 Zielsetzung 3 Stand der Wissenschaft und Technik 4 Anforderungen an einen faserverbund-gerechten IHU/Spritzgießprozess 5 Prozessentwicklung und Validierung 6 In-situ-Integrationsprozess für metallische Inserts 7 Konfiguration einer seriellen Fertigungstechnologie 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Anhänge

Si l'emploi des matériaux composites dans l'aéronautique est déjà effectif sur des éléments de structures principales et de grande taille, leur généralisation aux structures secondaires bute sur leur positionnement en termes de coûts et performances face aux métaux. Il s'agit dans ce travail de contribuer à la mise en place d'une filière française de pièces composites hautes performances à bas coûts en s'appuyant sur un procédé de moulage en grande série, à savoir le thermoformage à haute pression. Ainsi, il a été question dans un premier temps d'optimiser ce procédé vis-à-vis des principales matières rencontrées dans les structures aéronautiques. Ensuite, les stratifiés moulés ont été caractérisés et les effets des conditions environnementales sévères (humidité, température, impact) sur leur comportement mécanique étudiés. Par ailleurs, réduire les coûts des pièces signifie également réduire les coefficients de sécurité qui restent très élevés pour les pièces composites. Cela passe par une meilleure prédictibilité de la rupture des matériaux et du comportement mécanique au-delà du linéaire. Sur le carbone/PEEK satin de 5 pris comme matériau d'illustration, les phénomènes non linéaires (viscoplasticité) ainsi que les mécanismes d'endommagement et de rupture ont été étudiés. Un accent particulier a été mis sur le délaminage et un critère permettant de prédire son amorçage a été proposé. La possibilité de faire des modèles éléments finis des pièces directement à l'échelle mésoscopique (du pli) a été également explorée et laisse entrevoir des pistes prometteuses pour des dimensionnements plus sûrs et donc moins conservatifs. / If the use of composite materials is already effective on elements of main structures and large size parts, their generalization to secondary parts is not effective due to their cost and their performances compared to metals. The framework of this thesis is to contribute to the establishment of a French chain of high performance composite parts at low cost. Thus, it was initially question of optimizing the process vis-à-vis the main composite materials used in the aerospace structures. Then, the molded laminates were characterized and the effects of severe conditions (humidity, temperature, impact) on their mechanical behavior were studied. Also, reduce the cost of parts also means reducing the safety factors which remain very high. This requires a better prediction of the failure and the mechanical behavior beyond the linear. Taking the five harness satin weave carbon/PEEK material as example, non-linear phenomena (viscoplasticity), damage mechanisms and failure criteria were studied, with particular emphasis on the delamination. The possibility to perform finite element analysis of the parts directly at the mesoscopic scale (ply-scale) was also explored and suggests promising expectations for a less conservative sizing of composite structures.

Cílem této diplomové práce je lépe porozumět konceptu únavového poškození damage tolerance zmapováním všech možných vlivů na lomovou houževnatost vláknového kompozitu s polymerní matricí. Toho je dosaženo provedením zkoušek za různých podmínek (např. změna parametrů měření, mód zatížení, pořadí vrstev a materiál) a monitorováním odlišností v šíření trhliny. Na základě dat získaných během těchto testů je určena lomová houževnatost. Potenciální rozdíly jsou zkonzultovány a porovnány s ostatními vzorky.

Prefabricerade sandwichelement kommer att produceras till Linnéskolan i Älmhult av Torps Byggelement AB. Ett sandwichelement består av två lager betong (fasad och bärande skikt) med isolering mellan de två skikten. Dessa sandwichelement hade till en början förankringssystemet Thermopin tillverkade av B.T. Innovation, men på grund av produktion- och leveransproblem så ersattes detta förankringssystem mot Isolink som tillverkas av Schöck. Isolink och Thermopin är två förankringssystem tillverkade av glasfiberarmerade plaststänger (GFRP). Sandwichelementen som kommer att användas i Linnéskolan använder sig av isoleringen Kooltherm tillverkad av Kingspan. I detta arbete jämförs förankringssystemens bärförmågor i form av utdragskapacitet. Beräkningar för kapacitet mot vidhäftningsbrott, utdragsbrott och brott i stångmaterial görs för de båda systemen. Utöver detta testas även bärförmågan i form av utdragskapacitet för isolering Kooltherm. 12 testprover, som tillverkades och levererades av Torps Byggelement AB, utsätts för utdragslaster till brott uppstod. Endast de förankringssystem som bär vinkelrät mot skikten testades. De 12 testproverna var uppdelade på följande vis: Fyra tester med Thermopin, fyra tester med Isolink samt fyra tester med endast isoleringen Kooltherm. De testprover med Isolink-systemet gav ett utdragsbrott vid 18.9 kN. Thermopin gav ett spjälkningsbrott vid 14.9 kN. Kooltherm gav brott i isoleringen vid 1.3 kN. Då Isolink fick ett vidhäftningsbrott är det viktigt med en god vidhäftning mellan förankringssystemet och omkringliggande betong. Vibrering av betongen i flera steg vid användning av Isolink kan därför anses vara viktig. Thermopin fick ett spjälkningsbrott då tillverkarens minsta avstånd till kant inte uppfylldes med testproverna. Det går med stor sannolikhet att säga att Thermopin inte hade fått ett utdragsbrott även om minsta avstånd till kant uppfylldes, mest troligt är att ett konbrott hade uppstått. / Prefabricated sandwich elements will be produced to Linnéskolan in Älmhult by Torps Byggelement AB. A sandwich element is built up by two layers of concrete (facade- and load bearing layer) with insulation separating the two layers. These sandwich elements were intended to have the anchors Thermopin produced by B.T. Innovation but due to delivery problems, this connection system was replaced with Isolink made by Schöck. Isolink and Thermopin are two anchors consisting of glass fiber reinforced plastic bars (GFRP). The sandwich elements that will be used in Linnéskolan will have the insulation Kooltherm made by Kingspan. This work is comparing the two connection systems in load bearing capacity by pull-out load tests. Calculations for pull-out failure, concrete failure and anchor failure were done for both of the connection systems. The load bearing capacity was also to be checked for the Kooltherm insulation by pull-out load tests. 12 test specimens were manufactured and delivered by Torps Byggelement AB. Only the anchors perpendicular to the concrete layers were tested. The 12 test specimens were divided as follows: four tests with Thermopin, four tests with Isolink and four tests without a connection system with only the Kooltherm insulation. The test specimens with Isolink gave a pull-out load at 18.9 kN. Thermopin gave a splitting failure at 14.9 kN. Kooltherm insulation gave a failure in the insulation at 1.3 kN. Due to Isolink getting a pull-out load failure, it is important that the bond between the anchor and the surrounding concrete is strong. Compacting of the concrete in multiple steps when using the Isolink-system can be considered important. The test specimens with the Thermopin-system got a splitting failure due to the manufacturers requirement on minimum edge distance not being achieved in the test specimens. It is proper to state that it is very unlikely that a pull-out failure would occur in the Thermopin test specimens even if the minimum edge distance was achieved. Most likely a concrete-cone failure would have occurred.

Gegenstand dieser Arbeit ist ein neuartiges Direktverarbeitungsverfahren zur Integration von Dehnungssensoren in rotationsförmige Faser-Kunststoff-Verbundbauteile mit dem Ziel einer präzisen, schnellen, robusten, kraftflussgerechten und kostengünstigen Echtzeitüberwachung des Verhaltens versagensrelevanter Strukturen. Der Fokus der Arbeit liegt dafür in der Erforschung eines metalldrahtbasierten und während der Bauteilfertigung in-situ hergestellten strukturintegrierten Sensors (AMBOS: Adapted Metal Wire Based and Fiber Oriented Sensor), dessen Position im Verbundwerkstoff mit hoher Genauigkeit der Verstärkungsfaserorientierung einer Einzelschicht entspricht. Neben der Bestimmung mechanischer Kennwerte der Drähte, dem Abzugsverhalten, einer Analyse des Sensordrahteinflusses auf die Verbundeigenschaften, der Bestimmung des Sensorauszugsverhalten sind auch die Sensorapplikation mittels Direktverarbeitung, die Untersuchung zum Schädigungsverhalten des Sensordrahtes während der Verarbeitung, die Positionierung im Verbundwerkstoff und die Isolierung des Sensordrahtes wesentlicher Forschungsgegenstand. Die Verifizierung des AMBOS-Systems erfolgt mit typischen Belastungszuständen eines Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund-Druckbehälters mit Betrachtung der Temperaturkompensation und den Wechselwirkungen des neuen Sensorsystems mit der Umgebung.:1. Einleitung 2. Stand der Forschung 3. Faserparalleler Drahtsensor für Wickelstrukturen 4. Charakterisierung der Drahtsensorsysteme 5. Validierung des neuen Messsystems an einem Seriendruckbehälter 6. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick / The subject of this work is a novel direct processing method for the integration of strain sensors into rotational fiber-reinforced plastic components with the goal of precise, fast, robust, load-path-adapted and cost-effective real-time monitoring of the behavior of failure-relevant structures. To this end, the focus of the work is on research into a metal wire-based structure-integrated sensor (AMBOS: Adapted Metal Wire Based and Fiber Oriented Sensor) manufactured in-situ during component manufacturing, whose position in the composite corresponds with high accuracy to the reinforcing fiber orientation of a single layer. In addition to the determination of mechanical characteristics of the wires, the pull-off behavior, an analysis of the sensor wire influence on the composite properties, the determination of the sensor pull-out behavior, the sensor application by means of direct processing, the investigation of the damage behavior of the sensor wire during processing, the positioning in the composite material and the insulation of the sensor wire are also essential objects of the research. The verification of the AMBOS system is carried out with typical loading conditions of a fiber-reinforced plastic composite pressure vessel with consideration of the temperature compensation and the interactions of the new sensor system with the environment.:1. Einleitung 2. Stand der Forschung 3. Faserparalleler Drahtsensor für Wickelstrukturen 4. Charakterisierung der Drahtsensorsysteme 5. Validierung des neuen Messsystems an einem Seriendruckbehälter 6. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick

Adhesive bonding which has been in use for long as a traditional joining method has gained ground in the last couple of decades due to the introduction of advanced composite materials into the aerospace industry. Bonded structures have advantages such as high corrosion and fatigue resistance, ability to join dissimilar materials, reduced stress concentration, uniform stress distribution, good damping characteristics etc. They also have certain limitations like environmental degradation, existence of defects like pores, voids and disbonds, difficulty in maintenance and repair etc. A serious drawback in the use of adhesively bonded structures has been that there are no established comprehensive non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques for their evaluation. Further, a reliable evaluation of the effect of the existing defects on strength and durability of adhesive joints is yet to be achieved. This has been a challenge for the research and development community over several decades and hence, been the motivation behind this piece of research work. Under the scope of the work carried out in the thesis, some of the primary factors such as the existence of defects, degradation of the adhesive, stress and strain distribution in the bonded region etc., have been considered to study the bond integrity in composite to composite lap shear joints. The problem becomes complex if all the parameters affecting the adhesive joint are varied simultaneously. Taking this into consideration, one of the key parameters affecting the bond quality, viz., the adhesive layer degradation was chosen to study its effect on the bonded joint. The epoxy layer was added with different, definite amount of Poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) to arrive at sets of bonded joint specimens with varied adhesive layer properties. A thorough review of different non destructive testing methods applied to this particular problem showed that ultrasonic wave based techniques could be the right choice. To start with, preliminary experimental investigations were carried on unidirectional glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP-epoxy) lap joints. The adhesive joints were subjected to non destructive evaluation (NDE) using ultrasonic through transmission and pulse echo techniques as also low energy digital X-ray techniques. The results obtained showed a variation in reflected and transmitted ultrasonic pulse amplitude with bond quality. Digital X-Ray radiography technique showed a variation in the intensity of transmitted x-rays due to variation in the density of adhesive. Standard mechanical tests revealed that the addition of PVA decreased the bond strength. A plot of coefficient of reflection from the first interface and the bond strength showed a linear correlation between them. After obtaining a cursory feel and understanding of the parameters involved with the preliminary experiments on GFRP adhesive joints which yielded interesting and encouraging results, further work was carried on specimens made out of autoclave cured carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP)-epoxy bonded joints. Normal incidence ultrasound showed a similar trend. Analyses of the Acoustic Emission (AE) signals generated indicate early AE activity for degraded joints compared to healthy joints. Literary evidences suggest that the ultrasonic shear waves are more sensitive to interfacial degradation. An attempt was made to use oblique incidence ultrasonic interrogation using shear waves. The amplitude of reflected shear waves from the interface increased with an increase in degradation. Further, a signal analysis approach in the frequency domain revealed a shift in the frequency minimum towards lower range in degraded samples. This phenomenon was verified using analytical models. An inversion algorithm was used to determine the interfacial transverse stiffness which decreased significantly due to increase in degradation. Conventional ultrasonic evaluation methods are rendered ineffective when a direct access to the test region is not possible; a different approach with guided wave techniques can be explored in this scenario. Investigations on CFRP-epoxy adhesive joints using Lamb waves showed a decrease in the amplitude of ‘So’ mode in degraded samples. Theoretical dispersion curves exhibited a similar trend. Frequency domain studies on the received modes using Gabor wavelet transform showed a negative shift in frequency with increased degradation. It was also observed that the maximum transmission loss for the most degraded sample with 40 percent PVA occurred in the range of 650 – 800 kHz. Non linear ultrasonic (NLU) evaluation revealed that the nonlinearity parameter (β) increased with increased degradation. Kissing bonds are most commonly occurring type of defects in adhesive joints and are very difficult to characterize. A recent non-contact imaging technique called digital image correlation (DIC) was tried to evaluate composite adhesive joints with varied percentage of inserted kissing bond defects. The results obtained indicate that DIC can detect the kissing bonds even at 50 percent of the failure load. In addition, to different experimental approaches to evaluate the bonded joint discussed above, the effect of degradation on the stresses in the bond line region was studied using analytical and numerical approach. A linear adhesive beam model based on Euler beam theory and a nonlinear adhesive beam model based on Timoshenko beam theory were used to determine the adhesive peel and shear stress in the joint. Digital image correlation technique was used to experimentally obtain the bond line strains and corresponding stresses were computed assuming a plane strain condition. It was found that the experimental stresses followed a similar trend to that predicted by the two analytical models. A maximum peel stress failure criterion was used to predict failure loads. A failure mechanism was proposed based on the observations made during the experimental work. It was further shown that the critical strain energy release rate for crack initiation in a healthy joint is much higher compared to a degraded joint. The analytical models become cumbersome if a larger number of factors have to be taken into account. Numerical methods like finite element analysis are found to be promising in overcoming these hurdles. Numerical investigation using 3D finite element analysis was carried out on CFRP-epoxy adhesive joints. The adherend – adhesive interface was modeled using connector elements whose stiffness properties as well as the bulk adhesive properties for joints with different amounts of PVA were determined using ultrasonic inspection method. The peel and shear stress variation along the adhesive bond line showed a similar trend as observed with the experimental stress distribution (DIC) but with a lesser magnitude. A parametric study using finite element based Monte-Carlo simulation was carried out to assess the effect of variation in various joint parameters like adhesive modulus, bondline thickness, adherend geometrical and material properties on peel and shear stress in the joint. It was found that the adhesive modulus and bond line thickness had a significant influence on the magnitude of stresses developed in the bond line. Thus, to summarize, an attempt has been made to study the bond line integrity of a composite epoxy adhesive lap joint using experimental, analytical and numerical approaches. Advanced NDE tools like oblique incidence ultrasound, non linear ultrasound, Lamb wave inspection and digital image correlation have been used to extract parameters which can be used to evaluate composite bonded joints. The results obtained and reported in the thesis have been encouraging and indicate that in specific cases where the bond line thickness and other relevant parameters if can be maintained or presumed reasonably non variant, it is possible to effectively evaluate the integrity of a composite bonded joint.

"Review of the literature shows that the reported correlation between predictions and experimental data of flame spread vary greatly. The discrepancies displayed by the models are generally attributed to inaccurate input parameters, user effects, and inadequacy of the model. In most experiments, the metric to which the model is deemed accurate is based on the prediction of the heat release rate, but flame spread is a highly complex phenomenon that should not be simplified as such. Moreover, fire growth models are usually made up of distinctive groups of calculation on separate physical phenomena to predict processes that drive fire growth. Inaccuracies of any of these “sub-models” will impact the overall flame spread prediction, hence identifying the sources of error and sensitivity of the subroutines may aid in the development of more accurate models. Combating this issue required that the phenomenon of flame spread be decomposed into four components to be studied separately: turbulent fluid dynamics, flame temperature, flame heat transfer, and condensed phase pyrolysis. Under this framework, aspects of a CFD model may be validated individually and cohesively. However, a lack of comprehensive datasets in the literature hampered this process. Hence, three progressively more complex sets of experiments, from free plume fires to fires against an inert wall to combustible wall fires, were conducted in order to obtain a variety of measurements related to the four inter-related components of flame spread. Multiple permutations of the tests using different source fuels, burner size, and source fire heat release rate allowed a large amount of comparable data to be collected for validation of different fire configurations. FDS simulations using mostly default parameters were executed and compared against the experimental data, but found to be inaccurate. Parametric study of the FDS software shows that there are little definitive trends in the correlation between changes in the predicted quantities and the modeling parameters. This highlights the intricate relationships shared between the subroutines utilized by FDS for calculations related to the four components of flame spread. This reveals a need to examine the underlying calculation methods and source code utilized in FDS."