Dispositivos de emissão de elétrons por efeito de campo elétrico (FE - Field Emission Devices) têm sido propostos para aplicações como fontes eficientes de elétrons em nanolitografia, microscopia eletrônica, sensores microeletrônicos de vácuo, entre outras. Atualmente os sistemas tradicionais utilizados para caracterização de dispositivos FE fornecem apenas o comportamento geral da emissão de elétrons, ou seja, não permitem efetuar uma investigação mais seletiva e precisa dos centros emissores que constituem o dispositivo, durante seu funcionamento como dispositivo. Frente a esta lacuna, este trabalho propõe o desenvolvimento de um sistema de caracterização de dispositivos emissores de elétrons através do processamento de imagens integrado ao tradicional levantamento da característica corrente-tensão (I-V) do dispositivo. Tais imagens são obtidas através do impacto dos elétrons em uma tela fosforescente. A plataforma LabVIEW foi aplicada para o desenvolvimento do algoritmo de processamento dos sinais, que incorpora desde a etapa de aquisição dos dados (ou seja, medições realizadas pelos instrumentos) até a apresentação dos resultados em diferentes formatos (imagem ou representações gráficas), à escolha do usuário. O sistema desenvolvido permitiu avaliar, quantificar e identificar a distribuição da corrente de emissão em distintas regiões de interesse de amostras compostas por microestruturas ou filmes emissores de elétrons, resultando em representações gráficas bi e tridimensionais. Complementarmente, o sistema também permitiu comparar o desempenho dos dispositivos de emissão de elétrons por efeito de campo elétrico e estudar os efeitos físicos relacionados ao impacto dos elétrons em diferentes tipos de telas fosforescentes. Esta proposta resultou em uma ferramenta inovadora para análise de emissão de elétrons, com a vantagem de manter o dispositivo dentro do seu ambiente de operação, em alto vácuo, representando um grande avanço na metodologia aplicada para se obter características operacionais de dispositivos FE e proporcionando uma caracterização com qualidade superior, visto que proporcionou uma avaliação localizada dos centros emissores numa dada matriz. / Field emission devices (FE devices) have been proposed as efficient sources of electrons for applications in nanolithography, electron microscopy, microelectronic vacuum sensors, among others. Nowadays, the traditional FE characterization systems provide only information related to the general behavior of the electron emission, that is, they do not have specific tools to execute more selective and precise investigation of the emitting centers during their operation as device. As an alternative, this work proposes the development of a dedicated system for characterization of FE by integrating image processing with the traditional current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the devices. Such images are obtained by the impact of electrons on a phosphorescent screen. The LabVIEW platform was applied to develop the algorithm of signal processing. This algorithm processes information from the data acquisition stage (instruments measurements) to the presentation of the results in different ways (image or graphical representation), according to the researcher´s choices. The developed system allowed evaluating, quantifying and identifying the emission current distribution in different regions of interest of samples composed by microstructures or thin emitting electron films, whose results could be represented in two and threedimensional graphics. Additionally, the system also allowed comparing the performance of electron emission devices by electrical field effect and studying physical effects related to the impact of electrons in different types of phosphorescent screens. This proposal resulted in an innovative tool for electron emission analysis, with the advantage of keeping the device inside its high vacuum characterization environment, which represents a significant advance in the methodology applied to obtain operational characteristics of FE devices and to provide a characterization with superior quality, since it provided a localized evaluation of the emitting centers in a given matrix.

The purpose of these experiments was to determine the degradation mechanisms of molybdenum based field emitter arrays to oxygen exposures and to improve the overall reliability. In addition, we also evaluated the emission current stability of gold-coated field emitter arrays to oxygen exposures. oxygen at 1x10-6 torr was introduced into the chamber through a leak valve for different lengths of time and duty cycles. To ensure identical oxygen exposure and experimental measurement conditions, tips on half the area of the FEA were fully coated with gold and the other half were left uncoated. The emission current from the gold coated half was found to degrade much less than that from the uncoated half, in the presence of oxygen. Also in the absence of oxygen, the emission current recovery for the gold-coated side was much quicker than that for the uncoated side.

Dans ce travail, nous exposons une méthode basée sur la détection localisée en couplage capacitif de la composante électrique du signal RMN via des micro/nano sondes spécifiquement développées. Dans la première étape de ce travail nous avons utilisé des NEMS à base de nanotube de carbone pour réaliser une détection du signal RMN à l'échelle nanométrique. En effet, grâce à un couplage électromécanique, nous avons caractérisé ces systèmes en émission de champ, déterminé expérimentalement leur fréquence de résonance et montré qu'ils sont capables de détecter un signal radiofréquence. Pour utiliser ces dispositifs en RMN, l'adaptation du champ statique B0 de l'aimant pour atteindre la valeur de la fréquence de Larmor d'un atome est nécessaire. L'excitation locale autour de ces systèmes permettra une caractérisation complète et fiable. Pour mettre en place cette excitation localisée, nous avons choisi, dans la deuxième étape de cette thèse, une sonde locale de champ électromagnétique à l'échelle micrométrique. D'abord, nous présentons des simulations autour de la microsonde, décrivant la propagation des champs électrique et magnétique injectée par la microsonde. Nous avons caractérisé la microsonde en mode collection. Nous montrons une décroissance de l'intensité du signal RMN, en fonction de la distance. Nous avons observé et modélisé démontrant ainsi que La microsonde est capable de détecter localement un signal RMN tandis que la bobine capte de façon globale. Nous présentons les premières expériences de l'utilisation de la microsonde en mode émission. Ces mesures nous fournissent un modèle qui décrit une excitation inhomogène, dûe à l'émission locale de la puissance (décroissance exponentielle de la puissance), proche de la microsonde. Une distribution des angles de basculement est répartie d'une façon inhomogène induisant une distribution des intensités du signal RMN autour de la microsonde. À la fin de cette thèse, nous avons réalisé deux expériences comme applications directes suite des études sur la caractérisation de la microsonde. La première consiste à imager un volume d'eau placé dans un bain d'huile de silicone. L'image est obtenue en déplaçant mécaniquement la microsonde et en réalisant pour chaque point une mesure de spectroscopie localisée. Dans la deuxième expérience, la microsonde est utilisée pour injecter dans ce volume d'eau des impulsions électromagnétiques et détecte à la suite le signal RMN. Notre étude sur la caractérisation de l'émission locale par une microsonde et la détection du signal radiofréquence par un NEMS à base de NTC, nous permet de proposer un nouveau type de dispositifs capable de détecter un signal RMN. / In this work, we explain our method based on the detection localized capacitive coupling of the electric component of the NMR signal via micro/nano probes specifically developeds. In the first stage of this work we use NEMS based on carbon nanotube to achieve a detection of the NMR signal at the nanoscale. Because of an electromechanical coupling, we characterize these systems in field emission, and we determine experimentally their resonance frequency and shown that they are able to detect a radio signal. To use these devices in NMR, it is necessary to adapt the value of the static field B0 of the magnet to reach the value of the Larmor frequency. We found that a local excitement around these systems gives them a reliable characterization, to avoid disrupting the parasite measurements. To implement this localized excitation, we choose a micro-probe (coaxial cable). First, we presente simulations, describing the propagation of electric and magnetic fields transmitted by the microprobe. After we characterize in collection mode the microprobe. This study shows us a decrease of the NMR signal as a function as distance. This proves that the microprobe is able to detect an NMR signal in near field, while the coil picks up globally. We characterize the microprobe in the transmit mode . These measurements provide us with a model that describes an inhomogeneous excitation of nuclei, due to the emission of power in vicinity of the microprobe. An inhomogeneous distribution of tilt angles induces an inhomogeneous distribution of the NMR signal around the microprobe. At the end of this thesis, we conducte two applications such as direct studies on the characterization of the microprobe. The first consist to image a small volume of water placed in silicone oil sample. The image obtained by mechanically moving of the microprobe and making a localized spectroscopy. In the second experiment, the microprobe injected into this volume and detects after the NMR signal. Finally, the characterization in transmit mode of the microprobe allows us to better understand the phenomenon of the trasmission of electromagnetic waves to excite the spins of the nuclei in vicinity of the NEMS based on CNT. The latter being used as NMR probe at the nanoscale, to detect a NMR signal.

Este trabalho apresenta um método de fabricação de micropontas de silício que já contém os contatos elétricos integrados à sua estrutura. O processo de fabricação das microestruturas é o foco desta pesquisa e nossa motivação futura é desenvolver dispositivos para emissão eletrônica por efeito de campo (Field Emission Devices - FED. O método em questão baseia-se: (i) no underetch anisotrópico, que ocorre em substratos de silício (100) quando orientados de maneira conveniente, em solução de KOH; (ii) na utilização de filme de oxinitreto de silício (SiOxNy), que visa o mascaramento no processo de corrosão durante a formação das micropontas e também, o suporte mecânico para as trilhas metálicas que formam o eletrodo de polarização. Tal material, obtido por Deposição Química a Vapor assistida por Plasma (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition - PECVD), apresenta baixo stress interno e tem a função de isolar eletricamente os eletrodos do substrato de Si. Esse filme de SiOxNy viabilizou a obtenção de trilhas autosustentadas, planas e lisas, com dimensões de até 6 milímetros. Através de técnicas convencionais de fotolitografia construímos contatos elétricos de cromo auto-alinhados sobre as micropontas. Metodologicamente definimos e caracterizamos, por meio de microscopia óptica, diferentes etapas da formação das micropontas, determinamos suas respectivas taxas de corrosão e consequentemente o tempo total de sua formação, em função das dimensões iniciais da máscara. As estruturas foram fabricadas na forma de matrizes com 50, 98, 112 e 113 micropontas. O espaçamento entre elas varia de 130 a 450 ?m. O diâmetro do ápice e a altura são de aproximadamente 1 e 54 ?m respectivamente. A principal vantagem deste método de fabricação é a eliminação da necessidade de utilização de microposicionadores externos e de acionamento manual, para a integração de contatos elétricos à estrutura. Finalmente, o êxito deste método deveu-se essencialmente às propriedades exclusivas do filme de SiOxNy. / This work presents a fabrication method of silicon microtips with integrated electrical contacts into the structure. Our motivation is the future development of field emission devices - FED, however our focus in this research is the microstructure fabrication process. This method is based on: (i) anisotropic under-etch method that occurs in the silicon substrate (100), when it is oriented in convenient crystallographic direction, using KOH solution; (ii) the employment of silicon oxinitride films (SiOxNy) which aims to mask the corrosion process during the formation of the microtips, and also to give mechanically support for the metallic tracks of their electrodes. Such material, which is obtained by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition - PECVD, exhibits internal low stress and was used to obtain electric insulation between the electrodes and the Si substrate. These SiOxNy films made possible the achievement of flat and smooth selfsustained tracks, whose dimensions can reach 6 millimeters. Through conventional photolitographic techniques, we built chromium self-aligned electrical contacts on those microtips. Methodologically, we define and characterize different stages of microtips formation, by means of optical microscopy, and we determine their respective etch rates. And consequently the entire formation time in function of the initial mask dimensions. Those structures had been manufactured in the shape of matrices with 50, 98, 112 and 113 microtips which distance between each other can vary from 130 to 450 ?m. Its diameter in the microtip apex and its height are about 1 and 54 ?m respectively. The main advantage of this fabrication method is the lack of the requirement of manual external micropositioners for the integration of electrical contacts to structure itself. Finally, this method succeeds due essentially to the SiOxNy exclusive film properties.

Este trabalho apresenta um método de fabricação de micropontas de silício que já contém os contatos elétricos integrados à sua estrutura. O processo de fabricação das microestruturas é o foco desta pesquisa e nossa motivação futura é desenvolver dispositivos para emissão eletrônica por efeito de campo (Field Emission Devices - FED. O método em questão baseia-se: (i) no underetch anisotrópico, que ocorre em substratos de silício (100) quando orientados de maneira conveniente, em solução de KOH; (ii) na utilização de filme de oxinitreto de silício (SiOxNy), que visa o mascaramento no processo de corrosão durante a formação das micropontas e também, o suporte mecânico para as trilhas metálicas que formam o eletrodo de polarização. Tal material, obtido por Deposição Química a Vapor assistida por Plasma (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition - PECVD), apresenta baixo stress interno e tem a função de isolar eletricamente os eletrodos do substrato de Si. Esse filme de SiOxNy viabilizou a obtenção de trilhas autosustentadas, planas e lisas, com dimensões de até 6 milímetros. Através de técnicas convencionais de fotolitografia construímos contatos elétricos de cromo auto-alinhados sobre as micropontas. Metodologicamente definimos e caracterizamos, por meio de microscopia óptica, diferentes etapas da formação das micropontas, determinamos suas respectivas taxas de corrosão e consequentemente o tempo total de sua formação, em função das dimensões iniciais da máscara. As estruturas foram fabricadas na forma de matrizes com 50, 98, 112 e 113 micropontas. O espaçamento entre elas varia de 130 a 450 ?m. O diâmetro do ápice e a altura são de aproximadamente 1 e 54 ?m respectivamente. A principal vantagem deste método de fabricação é a eliminação da necessidade de utilização de microposicionadores externos e de acionamento manual, para a integração de contatos elétricos à estrutura. Finalmente, o êxito deste método deveu-se essencialmente às propriedades exclusivas do filme de SiOxNy. / This work presents a fabrication method of silicon microtips with integrated electrical contacts into the structure. Our motivation is the future development of field emission devices - FED, however our focus in this research is the microstructure fabrication process. This method is based on: (i) anisotropic under-etch method that occurs in the silicon substrate (100), when it is oriented in convenient crystallographic direction, using KOH solution; (ii) the employment of silicon oxinitride films (SiOxNy) which aims to mask the corrosion process during the formation of the microtips, and also to give mechanically support for the metallic tracks of their electrodes. Such material, which is obtained by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition - PECVD, exhibits internal low stress and was used to obtain electric insulation between the electrodes and the Si substrate. These SiOxNy films made possible the achievement of flat and smooth selfsustained tracks, whose dimensions can reach 6 millimeters. Through conventional photolitographic techniques, we built chromium self-aligned electrical contacts on those microtips. Methodologically, we define and characterize different stages of microtips formation, by means of optical microscopy, and we determine their respective etch rates. And consequently the entire formation time in function of the initial mask dimensions. Those structures had been manufactured in the shape of matrices with 50, 98, 112 and 113 microtips which distance between each other can vary from 130 to 450 ?m. Its diameter in the microtip apex and its height are about 1 and 54 ?m respectively. The main advantage of this fabrication method is the lack of the requirement of manual external micropositioners for the integration of electrical contacts to structure itself. Finally, this method succeeds due essentially to the SiOxNy exclusive film properties.

There has been much work on electron emission. It has lead to the concept of the photon and new electron sources for imaging such as electron microscopes and the rst formulation of holographic reconstructions [1-6]. Analytical derivations are important to gain physical insight into the problem of developing better electron sources. However, to date, such formulations have su ered by a number of approximations that have masked important physics. In this thesis, a new approach is provided that solves the Schrodinger wave equation for photoemission from a single atom tungsten tip barrier or more generally, for photoemission from a Schottky triangular barrier potential, with or without image potential e ects. We describe the system, then introduce the mathematical derivation. We conclude with the applications of the theory.

There has been much work on electron emission. It has lead to the concept of the photon and new electron sources for imaging such as electron microscopes and the rst formulation of holographic reconstructions [1-6]. Analytical derivations are important to gain physical insight into the problem of developing better electron sources. However, to date, such formulations have su ered by a number of approximations that have masked important physics. In this thesis, a new approach is provided that solves the Schrodinger wave equation for photoemission from a single atom tungsten tip barrier or more generally, for photoemission from a Schottky triangular barrier potential, with or without image potential e ects. We describe the system, then introduce the mathematical derivation. We conclude with the applications of the theory.

The present thesis is focused on study of dust grain charging. The experimental part covers interaction between dust grains and high-energy electrons and self-discharging of grains by both field electron emission and field ionization. The second part of the thesis describes construction and evaluation of a linear electrodynamic trap of the novel design. We have observed charging of small dust grains towards high positive electric potentials when bombarded by the high-energy electron beam. We have described an increase of the secondary electron- electron emission yield from negatively charged grains due to the surface field. Further, self-discharging characteristics for both positively and negatively charged grains were measured. The relationship between discharging rate and the rate of the flow of atoms leaving the grain surface due to diffusion was observed for positively charged grains. This suggests significantly lower surface field necessary for ionizing such atoms compared to the ionization of atoms of surrounding gas and compared to the typically published field ionization thresholds. Based on the design published in the master thesis, a linear quadrupole trap of novel design was constructed. Testing measurements confirmed functionality and expected characteristics of the trap. In addition, effects of...

Cette thèse s'inscrit dans la continuité des études menées pour améliorer la fiabilité des relais MEMS ohmiques et comprendre les mécanismes de dégradation se produisant au niveau du contact électrique aux échelles micro et sub-micrométriques. Les deux premiers chapitres de ce manuscrit permettent d'établir l'état de l'art du domaine et de décrire les différentes techniques expérimentales utilisées afin de caractériser les mécanismes physiques se produisant lors de l'ouverture et la fermeture d'un relais MEMS sous courant. Le troisième chapitre étudie qualitativement et quantitativement le transfert de matière aux distances sub-micrométriques. L'utilisation d'un microscope à force atomique (AFM) permet d'identifier les paramètres clés, notamment la tension de contact à l'état ouvert et la vitesse de commutation. L'origine de ce transfert de matière est attribuée à des émissions de courant se produisant dans les derniers nanomètres avant la fermeture du contact. Un plasma métallique est également observé et caractérisé pendant les phases de commutations. Ces observations conduisent à l'élaboration d'un scénario permettant d'expliquer le transfert de matière à ces dimensions. Le quatrième chapitre se consacre en première partie à l'étude des rebonds lors de la fermeture du contact. On montre que des rebonds peuvent apparaître quelques µs après la fermeture du contact au cours des cycles. Ceux-ci semblent être des indicateurs de la fin de vie du composant. D'autres rebonds, liés aux forces électrostatiques de contact, sont également mis en évidence lors de fermetures à faibles vitesses (qq nm/s). L'importance de ces forces est néanmoins du second ordre et ces derniers rebonds n'interviennent pas directement dans la phase de fermeture d'un relais MEMS. L'étude de la quantification de la résistance de contact lors de l'ouverture du contact constitue la deuxième partie de ce dernier chapitre. La nature quantique de ce phénomène est mise en évidence dans deux dispositifs : un interrupteur MEMS et à l'aide d'un AFM. Il est notamment montré que ce phénomène est seulement observable pour des courants inférieurs à 100µA. Finalement, l'ensemble de ces travaux mènent à différentes recommandations, détaillées en conclusion, nécessaires pour assurer le bon fonctionnement des relais MEMS. / This thesis aims to improve the reliability of ohmic MEMS switches and focuses on the degradation mechanisms of the electrical contact at the micro and nano-scales. The two first chapters of the manuscript provide a state-of–the-art of MEMS switches and describe the different experimental techniques used to characterize the physical phenomena involved in the opening and closure of a MEMS switch under current (“hot switching actuation”). The third chapter studies qualitatively and quantitatively the material transfer at sub micrometer scale. An Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) is used to identify the main parameters involved in this phenomenon such as the opening contact voltage and the closing velocity. The origin of the material transfer is attributed to field emission in the last tens of nanometers before the contact closure. A metallic plasma is also observed and characterized during switching operations. According to the different observations, a scenario is suggested to explain material transfer at such small dimensions. The fourth chapter deals with dynamic observation during switching operations. First, bounces can be detected after a few millions of operations, they usually appear a few µs just after the first contact. Such bounces seem to be an early indicator of the lifetime of those devices. Other types of bounces related to the electrostatic contact force can be observed at very low closing velocity (a few nm/s). Nevertheless in a MEMS switch the closing and opening velocity is high enough to avoid such bounces. The second part of this chapter investigates the contact conductance quantization during the opening phase of a contact. We show that this phenomenon can be observed in a MEMS switch and with an AFM when the current is lower than 100µA. As a conclusion, several recommendations are provided to improve the reliability of MEMS switches.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:34:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:01:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Dissertação (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP