The government of British Columbia faces a host of challenges as it attempts to establish a liquefied natural gas export industry and reignite unconventional shale gas production in northeast BC. Not only must it contend with a competitive and saturated global marketplace, but it must also address conflict with Treaty 8 First Nations whose treaty rights and traditional territories were impacted by early development. Shale gas impacts are intensely local, but First Nations have struggled to gain meaningful influence in colonial decision-making processes to ensure development decisions respect community values and authority. This research, conducted in partnership with Fort Nelson First Nation, explores the challenges and opportunities faced by the Nation in their efforts to reshape governance of the shale gas industry in their territory to address its environmental impacts. The research is situated within a review of multiple literatures including political economy, Indigenous governance, and critical studies of natural resource governance, social conflict and co-management in Indigenous-settler contexts. Through interviews and participant observation with the Fort Nelson First Nation, the thesis documents how those involved in shale gas governance at the local level perceive existing processes, and investigates under what conditions a more localized governance might resolve shale gas conflict in northeast BC. It develops an argument that shale gas governance must be rescaled to address landscape scale impacts and enhance the authority of local First Nations interests and knowledge. While collaborative governance reforms like co-management may not wholly eliminate deeply seated colonial authority, they can be effective and empower local First Nations communities under certain conditions. However, this case poses a unique set of context-specific challenges to governance reform, which the Fort Nelson First Nation are confronting as they work towards their governance and land use goals for their traditional territory. As the Nation continues to move forward, it is uncertain how they will negotiate the non-renewable industry’s political economy, and the current pro-development shale gas politics in BC. As such, this case offers a rare lens into local community experience with this relatively new and contentious global energy industry. / Graduate

The shale gas industry in northeast British Columbia is rapidly expanding and is promoted by the provincial government as a promising economic venture for the entire province. However, the industry is having impacts on the traditional territory of the Fort Nelson First Nation, although they have constitutionally recognized treaty rights to continue to use the land to meet their subsistence needs. I conducted this research in partnership with the Fort Nelson First Nation Department of Lands and Resources, with a focus on critically assessing the challenges they face. This research focuses on determining how the Fort Nelson First Nation can protect their treaty rights by taking control of, or inserting themselves into the data collection and monitoring activities of the shale gas industry. Utilizing a theory of knowledge politics, this research analyzes two strategies that challenge what knowledge should count, and on what terms: (1) the Fort Nelson First Nation’s participation and appropriation of the professionalized science regime and (2) the development of the Fort Nelson First Nation’s community-based monitoring program and its ability to impact decision-making. Drawing on primary research, participant observation, literature reviews and document analyses, I argue that these strategies are crucial and can create – but do not guarantee – links to affecting natural resource management decisions. / Graduate

This architectural thesis proposes a Mi’kmaq Learning Centre on the Dalhousie University Campus in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Indigenous-led and Indigenous minded content in the post secondary environment creates space for cultural continuity and inter-cultural dialogue. First Nations faculties and support spaces are increasingly being established in post-secondary institutions across Canada. These buildings must negotiate the continental: North American First Nations culture, as well as the regional: in the case of this thesis, the Mi’kmaq culture. While the content and mode of First Nations and Mi’kmaq modes learning is hugely beneficial to all cultures, the architectural space for its application is often overlooked. This thesis project applies many methods of research and interpretation to interweave the ideas of Mi’kmaq land and First Nations learning, creating place for this pedagogy on Dalhousie University Campus.

This study investigates the relationship between gender, social capital and resilience in four of British Columbia’s rural, island communities. Each community’s unique circumstances provide a distinctive context in which to study the interaction between these concepts. This study utilizes quantitative data from several sources, including Statistics Canada, BC Stats, and a mail out survey conducted by the Resilient Communities Project (RCP). This study also utilizes qualitative data from several sources, including two sets of RCP interviews, interviews carried out in the Haida First Nation community of Old Massett, and participant observation. The results of these case studies confirm the necessity of taking context into consideration in any study of the operation of social capital. Within this specific context, social networks operate very differently than in an urban setting. The small size of these rural communities means that the entire community functions as one social network, within which residents have ties of differing strengths. The strength of their ties determines their access to resources within the network, as access to these resources is only given to those who are accountable and trustworthy. Through visible and repeated social interaction, residents built strong ties to one another. These ties allow for processes of generalized reciprocity to take place, wherein residents give to others with no immediate expectation of receiving back, knowing that should they need help, it will be available. This process relies entirely on the trust built up through repeated interactions and the sanctions imposed on those who break it, and contributes greatly to community resilience. Women play a particular role within these communities. Unlike studies that find that women are disadvantaged by their social networks, the results of this study find that women have parlayed their higher levels of involvement in the social life of the community and the informal economy into beneficial social networks based on trust and reciprocity. In addition, their higher levels of education put them at the forefront of the new service economy with lower levels of unemployment and equal likelihood of self-employment, all of which contributes not only to individual resilience, but community resilience as well.

This thesis provides the first direct comparison between – and integration of – community-based and science-based approaches to the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs are one potentially effective conservation tool, but are being established very slowly. My research shows that community involvement in placing MPAs can help meet many ecological goals, although biophysical data improve the conservation value of sitings. To assess the need for MPAs in British Columbia (BC), Canada, I mapped stressors resulting from human activities. This produced a powerful rationale for MPAs: very little of the ocean, and almost none of the continental shelf of BC, lies beyond the reach of human stressors. My work helps reconcile differing perspectives about the efficacy of community-based vs. science-based MPA selection. I explored and analyzed these approaches, separately and together, in two areas in BC. First, I generated a community-based plan for MPA placement through partnerships with two First Nations (indigenous peoples) in BC. They offered strong support for spatial protection measures, and individuals nominated overlapping areas. Second, I applied a decision support tool (Marxan) to determine MPA placement under scientific precepts. Conservation planning usually lacks detailed ecological information but the Marxan approach was robust to some missing data; in such cases, it was best to use available abiotic and biotic data to ensure that both habitats and species were represented. Third, I integrated community-based and science-based approaches, to find that they verified and complemented each other. Indeed, an integration of the two was preferred by participants and also achieved all conservation objectives. Finally, I took a novel and pragmatic approach to ocean zoning. I used spatial data for thirteen commercial fisheries on Canada’s west coast to select areas where fishing should be permitted, rather than prohibiting fishing under a MPA paradigm. The results revealed that small reductions in fisheries yields, if judiciously selected, could allow creation of large unfished areas that embraced diverse biophysical regions and habitat types. Such a pragmatic approach could achieve remarkable conservation gains.

This research explores dynamics around Aboriginal language learning and use in Vancouver, British Columbia. With many different First Nations and Aboriginal languages represented in the city, urban Aboriginal language revitalization is complex and challenging. Sixteen research participants talked with me about competing priorities for urban Aboriginal individuals and families, the linguistic diversity of the British Columbia First Nations, and how demographic urbanization of Aboriginal peoples intersects with movements of language revitalization. The resulting analysis highlights some emerging language ideologies connected to urban Aboriginal language use and learning. Language ideologies have been defined as “the cultural system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with their loading of moral and political interests” (Irvine, cited in Kroskrity 2000:5). By identifying some commonalities in research participants’ attitudes around Aboriginal languages in the city, I argue that ‘placing language’ and ‘finding a place for language’ are critical issues for looking at Aboriginal language use and learning in Vancouver. By ‘placing language’, I mean that participants stressed the locality of Aboriginal languages, drawing important connections between land and language. Many honoured local languages by stating that their use and preservation should be top priorities in urban-specific language revitalization initiatives. They also recognized that other Native languages are represented in the city and could be fostered by collaboration with home communities, including reserve language programs. By ‘finding a place for language’, I mean taking time and making effort toward language learning and use in the fast-paced urban environment. Determining a place and a time for language in daily life or during events is crucial for language revitalization efforts in the city. This thesis specifies some suggestions for finding a place for language, highlighting different ideas shared by participants about public school language education, community centres as places for language learning, and use of local languages in service organizations and educational institutions and in the public sphere.

This thesis provides an analysis of the history and social context of the labret (lip plug) on the Northwest Coast of British Columbia over the last 5,000 years. Although labrets have typically been characterized as markers of ‘status’ with connotations of gender, the variability in observations made by early explorers and ethnographers suggests that this simplistic depiction belies a complexity in what aspect of social identity this form of personal communicated. Therefore, this research has sought to explore the relationship between labrets and social identity by conducting a comprehensive typological analysis by which to examine patterning in materiality through time and space. Although hindered by a lack of temporal data and contextual information on gender association, the results of this research demonstrate that there is geographical patterning at multiple scales—regional, sub-regional and even on the village or site level—which supports the hypothesis that the labret has been an exclusionary tradition conveying both individual and group social identity that varies through time and space in this region. The social meaning of labrets is further explored through research on contemporary labret use, which highlights a tension between individual expression and group acceptance that is expressed materially, contrasting the physical permanence of the labret and the mutability in social meaning conveyed. Finally, interviews with First Nations artists who include labrets in their art has shown that cultural identity both informs and is informed by a concept of shared heritage; thus, the labret is a symbol and expression of social identity that continues to hold significant meaning for the descendants of this heritage. Therefore, while simple correlations of the labret with ‘status’ and ‘gender’ are not wrong, nonetheless they betray the complexity of body ornamentation which, though manifested materially, is highly contextual. This research contributes to the ongoing anthropological discussion of materiality and identity, considering the ways that structured style is negotiated through practice, and asking whether this recursive, dynamic and dialectical relationship can be accessed archaeologically—a task that ultimately requires a commitment to reflexivity, multivocality, and critical examination of the research process itself.

The history of contact with Europeans for Native Americans and the Tlingit people in particular has been well documented as one of extreme pain, suffering, and injustice. It was "survival time" for the Tlingit and very difficult choices had to be made. The life of one Tlingit man, Rudolph Walton, born in Sitka, Alaska in 1867, illuminates this critical time in the history of the Tlingit people. This dissertation is ah exploration of the interplay between competing cultures and interests and it is a quest to understand who Rudolph Walton was and how his life and the choices he made are connected to the larger historic themes and cross-cultural issues in Alaska Native education and religious life. In addition to providing a look at history and at cultural change through an individual's life, choices and experiences, this dissertation is also about the connection between my ancestors' choices and the impact those choices had on the survival of a people. It is at once a macro view and a micro view of the impact of history on Indian people. After the purchase of Alaska by the United States traditional Tlingit life changed forever. The Tlingit were forced on a daily basis to balance demands and pressures made by various Christian religious groups and the U. S. government. They also had to contend with the prejudice of the average American citizen. Most Native American history has been limited to the use of records written by Europeans and Americans. Our understanding of that history is limited because the voice of the Native American is rarely heard. This dissertation fills a gap in the history of Southeast Alaska through an examination of the life of Rudolph Walton. The life of Mr. Walton is important because he left us with a unique set of documents which help us to understand the difficulties he had to face as a Tlingit man during a critical time in the history of Southeast Alaska.

Objective: Aboriginal children are disproportionately affected by obesity, as they are twice as likely to be classified as obese compared to their non-Aboriginal Canadian counterparts. Research indicates that income, food insecurity, and diet quality are important predictors of weight status, however these factors are not well explored among Aboriginal children living off reserve. This study aims to identify associations between food insecurity and diet on obesity status among off-reserve First Nations and Métis children. Methods: This study used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Data from the 2006 Aboriginal Peoples Survey (APS) – Children and Youth component were analyzed using binary logistic regression and the proportional odds model to assess relationships between food insecurity, diet, and body mass index (BMI). Fruit and vegetable intake, as well as junk food consumption, were used as proxy measures for children’s diet quality. Additional analyses involving income instead of food insecurity, as well as food insecurity interaction terms, were also explored. Focus groups were conducted with caregivers of Métis and off-reserve First Nations children in Midland-Penetanguishene and London, Ontario, respectively. The focus groups were planned and carried out in partnership with the Métis Nation of Ontario (MNO) and the Southwest Ontario Aboriginal Health Access Centre (SOAHAC). A thematic analysis was conducted with the qualitative data, and the focus group discussions provided important contextual information to complement the statistical results. Results: Approximately 11% of First Nations and 6.8% of Métis children were food insecure according to the 2006 APS. The quantitative analysis did not find a significant association between food insecurity and diet, or food insecurity and BMI for First Nations or Métis children. Income was a better predictor of weight status than food insecurity. For First Nations children, having a household income higher than $60,000 decreased the risk of being overweight/obese. For Métis children, a household income of less than $20,000 increased the risk of overweight/obesity. Food insecurity was only significant as an interaction with parental education for First Nations children, and with parental education and number of people living in the household for Métis children. The proportional odds model produced similar results to the binary logistic regression procedure, and food insecurity remained insignificant in the analyses. Contrary to the quantitative findings, the focus group discussions indicated that caregivers perceived a positive relationship between low income and food insecurity, as well as adverse impacts on their children’s diets. While caregivers did not use the term “food insecurity” explicitly, conversations about not having enough food or money for food, as well as coping strategies for when these situations occurred, suggested that food insecurity manifests itself in different ways. Caregivers mentioned decreased variety of foods, compromised fruit and vegetable intake, as well as decreased traditional food consumption as examples of how families’ food consumption and purchasing patterns changed when food insecure. Food insecurity negatively impacted children’s diets, and many caregivers attributed the rise in overweight and obesity to poor diet quality. Some of the key barriers to children eating healthfully were unaffordability and limited access to healthy foods. Caregivers also discussed the role of various programs for improving child health within their communities. Conclusions: While food insecurity was not significantly associated with obesity in the quantitative analyses, discussions with caregivers of First Nations and Métis children identified food insecurity and low income as important predictors of poor diet, and consequently decreased well-being. Several limitations associated with the 2006 APS design may have prevented food insecurity from being significantly associated with obesity risk; however, it is clear from both the quantitative and qualitative components of this study that income consistently affects diet and child obesity risk. Findings from this study can inform necessary improvements to existing programs, interventions, and policies targeting obesity and health of Aboriginal children.

Safe drinking water is a basic need; and risk assessment tools may assist in prioritizing actions to improve water safety. The objective of this research was to determine the appropriateness of current risk assessment approaches for First Nations drinking water systems. Criteria to evaluate risk assessment approaches were developed by combining common elements from literature, key informant interviews, and surveys. The criteria were compared against selected tools for drinking water risk assessment, including tools developed by Australia, Montana, Indian and Northern Affairs, and the University of Guelph. None of the tools, as available, met all of the criteria. Important considerations were found to include the operator, monitoring and recordkeeping, maintenance, technical considerations, emergency response plans, and source water protection. The tools were generally weak in assessing some potential challenges facing small, remote, and First Nations communities; including financial constraints, and taking a holistic view of water. / Note: this thesis was also submitted in hard-copy to Graduate Services