This thesis investigates changes in Iroquoian infant mortality and juvenile growth between 1250 and 1700 AD in the Lower Great Lakes region of North America. The objectives of this thesis are to investigate the tempo and quality of growth of Iroquoian infants and juveniles; to investigate the relationship between apparent neonatal and postneonatal mortality and predicted mortality ratios based on equal probability of mortality risk in the first year of life (1:11); and to investigate whether or not the ratio of neonatal to postneonatal mortality changed as a result of cultural change associated with the arrival of Europeans at around 1600 AD. These were investigated using a sample of infant and juvenile remains from twenty-one sites in upper New York state and Ontario. Tempo and quality of growth were examined by comparing femoral length at different ages to the Iroquoian adult femur length endpoint and to the growth patterns established in the Denver Growth Study and in other aboriginal North American archaeological samples. Above average infant growth is attributed to biocultural factors and infant mortality is largely caused by acute conditions. Below average juvenile growth, especially between two and seven years of age, is attributed to nutritional imbalances and overcrowding, poor sanitation, and infectious disease prevalence. Juveniles were likely chronically ill, resulting in poor attainment of stature, and this may have contributed to their deaths early in life. Apparent infant mortality was found to differ from predicted mortality, and this difference was attributed to cultural and environmental mortality biases that make interpretation difficult. Change in infant mortality ratios as a result of cultural change associated with European contact is evident in the Iroquoian context: the lack of neonatal remains in postcontact ossuaries is consistent with the ethnohistoric record, but the high proportion of neonates in precontact ossuaries suggests that observations made by ethnohistoric observers may not be applicable to our understanding of precontact burial patterns. The change in the ratio of neonatal to postneonatal remains in the pre- and postcontact periods is interpreted as evidence of changes in burial patterns rather than change in mortality risk.

The story of how and why the Canadian government negotiated Treaty 8 with First Nations living in north-western Canada, and its attitude toward the people whom it casually left out of treaty, provide an excellent example of how the Canadian government approached treaty negotiations in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Treaty 8 is both typical of the other numbered treaties negotiated with First Nations in the late nineteenth century in western Canada as well as different, in that it was the first of the "northern" numbered treaties negotiated with First Nations.<p> This thesis looks at Treaty 8 in both ways: how it illustrates a common approach to treaty making on the part of the Canadian government, and how it differs from other treaties and other treaty negotiation processes. The thesis also tells the story of the people left out of Treaty 8 negotiations in northern Alberta and north-western Saskatchewan, as well as their struggles to obtain justice for this governmental oversight.<p> This thesis looks at a number of issues related to Treaty 8 which earlier historians have either not focused on or overlooked. The first is that the territory covered by Treaty 8 is greater than the area into which treaty commissioners were sent in 1899 and 1900. The second related point is that the government policy of the time that treaties should be negotiated at as little expense and cost to the government as possible meant that people were left out of treaty negotiations.

Throughout the history of the North West, Metis people frequently used their knowledge of European, Indian, and Metis culture to mediate Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal social, diplomatic, and economic encounters. Though acknowledged in Metis historiography, this aspect of Metis identity has not been the focus of scholarly analysis, which has primarily centred on Louis Riel, Metis resistance, and ethnogenesis. By closely examining the primary documents, it is evident that the Metis interpreters present at Treaties 1 through 7 were more than merely translators. Prior to negotiations these Metis had interacted with First Nations in a variety of ways, whether in the fur trade or in missionary endeavours. Metis people were well versed in Aboriginal language and cultural traditions, skills they had employed successfully in Rupert's Land prior to 1870.<p> In drawing upon this amicable relationship between Metis and First Nations, Canadian officials in the North West recognized the positive effect of personal diplomacy on securing First Nations signatures to the treaty documents. In this thesis many examples will demonstrate that the actions of Metis people were critical in preventing violence between groups, thereby enabling the treaty process to begin. These Metis individuals moved within a middle ground of context that developed in the era prior to the 1870's, thus indicating a measure of continuity between the pre- and post transition period in the Canadian West.

This study builds on previous research showing that breast cancer survival is poorer for First Nations (FN) women compared to other Ontario women. Few studies have examined breast cancer survival in Indigenous populations compared to general populations; all of these report poorer survival among Indigenous people. Fewer still have examined potential factors related to the poorer survival, but these often suggest poorer prognosis even after adjustment for them. Study objectives were: to compare the distribution of demographic, prognostic and treatment factors between FN and non-FN women; to investigate factors associated with later diagnosis in FN women; to compare stage specific survival for FN and non-FN women controlling for important factors potentially associated with breast cancer survival; and to examine potential determinants of survival for FN women by stage at diagnosis. A case-case design was employed to compare FN women (n=287) diagnosed with invasive breast cancer to a frequency-matched random sample of women (n=671) from the general population diagnosed with breast cancer within the Ontario Cancer Registry. Women were matched (2:1) on period of diagnosis (1995-1999 and 2000-2004), age at diagnosis (<50 vs. 50≥), and Regional Cancer Centre (RCC). Stage at diagnosis and data relevant to the determinants of breast cancer survival were collected from medical charts at the RCCs. FN women were diagnosed with breast cancer at later stages compared to non-FN women. Having a non-screened method of detection and increasing BMI were associated with a later breast cancer diagnosis. FN women with comorbidity however were less likely to be diagnosed at a later stage. An unforeseen novel finding was that the survival disadvantage occurred after an early breast cancer diagnosis, whereas the survival experiences for those diagnosed at stages II+ were similar. In a multivariate analysis, elevated risk was observed for FN women in stage I, and significant risk was seen in women with comorbidity. These findings are actionable and can be used to improve the prognosis of FN women with breast cancer. It is likely that the same or similar factors are largely responsible for the survival disadvantage observed among Ontario FN people for most other major cancers.

This thesis investigates changes in Iroquoian infant mortality and juvenile growth between 1250 and 1700 AD in the Lower Great Lakes region of North America. The objectives of this thesis are to investigate the tempo and quality of growth of Iroquoian infants and juveniles; to investigate the relationship between apparent neonatal and postneonatal mortality and predicted mortality ratios based on equal probability of mortality risk in the first year of life (1:11); and to investigate whether or not the ratio of neonatal to postneonatal mortality changed as a result of cultural change associated with the arrival of Europeans at around 1600 AD. These were investigated using a sample of infant and juvenile remains from twenty-one sites in upper New York state and Ontario. Tempo and quality of growth were examined by comparing femoral length at different ages to the Iroquoian adult femur length endpoint and to the growth patterns established in the Denver Growth Study and in other aboriginal North American archaeological samples. Above average infant growth is attributed to biocultural factors and infant mortality is largely caused by acute conditions. Below average juvenile growth, especially between two and seven years of age, is attributed to nutritional imbalances and overcrowding, poor sanitation, and infectious disease prevalence. Juveniles were likely chronically ill, resulting in poor attainment of stature, and this may have contributed to their deaths early in life. Apparent infant mortality was found to differ from predicted mortality, and this difference was attributed to cultural and environmental mortality biases that make interpretation difficult. Change in infant mortality ratios as a result of cultural change associated with European contact is evident in the Iroquoian context: the lack of neonatal remains in postcontact ossuaries is consistent with the ethnohistoric record, but the high proportion of neonates in precontact ossuaries suggests that observations made by ethnohistoric observers may not be applicable to our understanding of precontact burial patterns. The change in the ratio of neonatal to postneonatal remains in the pre- and postcontact periods is interpreted as evidence of changes in burial patterns rather than change in mortality risk.

Water infrastructure on Aboriginal communities in Canada, and specifically Northern Manitoba is in sub-standard condition. A recent Government of Canada study indicated that an estimated $1.5 billion would need to be spent to improve this infrastructure. September 2003 through July 2004, an examination of the effectiveness of a membrane bioreactor (MBR) in a Northern Manitoban Aboriginal community took place. This study was intended to identify and test an appropriate and effective solution for the lack of adequate wastewater treatment in these communities. The MBR system, employing a Zenon ZW-10 ultrafiltration membrane, was designed and constructed at the University of Manitoba. It was installed and tested in two phases at the Opaskwayak Cree Nation Reserve in Northern Manitoba. Phase I was a direct comparison between the pilot-scale MBR and the community’s existing Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) with sand filter. This phase occurred from September 2003 until December 2003. The MBR, with an SRT of 20-days and an HRT of 10 hours, outperformed the SBR in every category despite 2 mechanical/electrical failures that resulted in the loss of biomass from the MBR. The SBR/Sand filter combination had BOD, TSS, and TKN concentrations of 30.3 mg/L, 27.5 mg/L, and 8.4 mg/L, respectively. By comparison, the BOD, TSS, and TKN concentrations in the MBR effluent were <6 mg/L, <5 mg/L, and 1.3 mg/L respectively. Phase II, from March 2004 through July 2004, tested the overall MBR efficacy and intended to assess a novel remote control and monitoring system. The MBR SRT was adjusted to 40-days and, as expected, the MBR MLVSS concentration increased to a relatively stable 5000 mg/L. The MBR continued to provide high quality effluent with some exceptions. Despite the 0.034 μm pore size, the total coliforms and TSS measured in the effluent were higher than in Phase I. This indicates a compromised membrane, faulty sampling procedures, or biological regrowth downstream of the membrane. This failure could point to the need for some form of tertiary disinfection. Also in Phase II, a remote control and monitoring program was implemented. The controlling PC was controlled via the internet using pcAnywhere software. The software allowed for real-time monitoring and complete control of the pilot system. In conclusion, the pilot-scale MBR yielded consistent, high quality wastewater effluent and this would benefit the pristine environments existing in Manitoba’s north. The potential hands-free operation could be utilized to provide support to communities lacking sufficient wastewater treatment know-how. / February 2006

Objective: Aboriginal children are disproportionately affected by obesity, as they are twice as likely to be classified as obese compared to their non-Aboriginal Canadian counterparts. Research indicates that income, food insecurity, and diet quality are important predictors of weight status, however these factors are not well explored among Aboriginal children living off reserve. This study aims to identify associations between food insecurity and diet on obesity status among off-reserve First Nations and Métis children. Methods: This study used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Data from the 2006 Aboriginal Peoples Survey (APS) – Children and Youth component were analyzed using binary logistic regression and the proportional odds model to assess relationships between food insecurity, diet, and body mass index (BMI). Fruit and vegetable intake, as well as junk food consumption, were used as proxy measures for children’s diet quality. Additional analyses involving income instead of food insecurity, as well as food insecurity interaction terms, were also explored. Focus groups were conducted with caregivers of Métis and off-reserve First Nations children in Midland-Penetanguishene and London, Ontario, respectively. The focus groups were planned and carried out in partnership with the Métis Nation of Ontario (MNO) and the Southwest Ontario Aboriginal Health Access Centre (SOAHAC). A thematic analysis was conducted with the qualitative data, and the focus group discussions provided important contextual information to complement the statistical results. Results: Approximately 11% of First Nations and 6.8% of Métis children were food insecure according to the 2006 APS. The quantitative analysis did not find a significant association between food insecurity and diet, or food insecurity and BMI for First Nations or Métis children. Income was a better predictor of weight status than food insecurity. For First Nations children, having a household income higher than $60,000 decreased the risk of being overweight/obese. For Métis children, a household income of less than $20,000 increased the risk of overweight/obesity. Food insecurity was only significant as an interaction with parental education for First Nations children, and with parental education and number of people living in the household for Métis children. The proportional odds model produced similar results to the binary logistic regression procedure, and food insecurity remained insignificant in the analyses. Contrary to the quantitative findings, the focus group discussions indicated that caregivers perceived a positive relationship between low income and food insecurity, as well as adverse impacts on their children’s diets. While caregivers did not use the term “food insecurity” explicitly, conversations about not having enough food or money for food, as well as coping strategies for when these situations occurred, suggested that food insecurity manifests itself in different ways. Caregivers mentioned decreased variety of foods, compromised fruit and vegetable intake, as well as decreased traditional food consumption as examples of how families’ food consumption and purchasing patterns changed when food insecure. Food insecurity negatively impacted children’s diets, and many caregivers attributed the rise in overweight and obesity to poor diet quality. Some of the key barriers to children eating healthfully were unaffordability and limited access to healthy foods. Caregivers also discussed the role of various programs for improving child health within their communities. Conclusions: While food insecurity was not significantly associated with obesity in the quantitative analyses, discussions with caregivers of First Nations and Métis children identified food insecurity and low income as important predictors of poor diet, and consequently decreased well-being. Several limitations associated with the 2006 APS design may have prevented food insecurity from being significantly associated with obesity risk; however, it is clear from both the quantitative and qualitative components of this study that income consistently affects diet and child obesity risk. Findings from this study can inform necessary improvements to existing programs, interventions, and policies targeting obesity and health of Aboriginal children.

The drinking water contamination tragedy in Walkerton, Ontario during the spring of 2000 led to many changes in water management for the province. Among these changes has been the increased use of the multiple barrier approach (MBA) to safe drinking water as the basis of water management for communities throughout Ontario. The MBA is also used in the management of water for First Nations communities throughout Ontario and Canada. Literature on water quality management for First Nations suggests that despite these changes, many communities continue to face challenges for ensuring the safety and quality of their drinking water supplies. Fort William First Nation, Gull Bay First Nation, and Mattagami First Nation, were selected for this study in order to investigate the use of the MBA in these communities. Data was collected using key informant interviews with representatives of institutions that affect water management for the case study communities, direct observations during visits to two of the communities and attendance at a First Nations water policy forum, and through a review of recent reports and publications on safe drinking water for First Nations. The research has provided insight into the challenges that the case study communities face for ensuring safe drinking water under the MBA, as well as opportunities that exist to address those challenges. The findings suggest that the MBA currently does not meet the unique needs of some First Nations communities. They also suggest that specific adaptations of existing water management strategies to the MBA framework may lead to a more effective approach to ensure safe drinking water for First Nations communities. This thesis focuses on several key ways to make these changes: Strengthen public involvement and awareness; Introduce effective legislative and policy frameworks; Encourage research, science and technology for First Nations’ water management; Allocate sufficient financial resources to First Nations to recruit, train and retain qualified water managers and maintain drinking water infrastructure, and; Increase efforts to ensure that water management goals are supported by local and indigenous traditional knowledge, beliefs and perspectives.

The drinking water contamination tragedy in Walkerton, Ontario during the spring of 2000 led to many changes in water management for the province. Among these changes has been the increased use of the multiple barrier approach (MBA) to safe drinking water as the basis of water management for communities throughout Ontario. The MBA is also used in the management of water for First Nations communities throughout Ontario and Canada. Literature on water quality management for First Nations suggests that despite these changes, many communities continue to face challenges for ensuring the safety and quality of their drinking water supplies. Fort William First Nation, Gull Bay First Nation, and Mattagami First Nation, were selected for this study in order to investigate the use of the MBA in these communities. Data was collected using key informant interviews with representatives of institutions that affect water management for the case study communities, direct observations during visits to two of the communities and attendance at a First Nations water policy forum, and through a review of recent reports and publications on safe drinking water for First Nations. The research has provided insight into the challenges that the case study communities face for ensuring safe drinking water under the MBA, as well as opportunities that exist to address those challenges. The findings suggest that the MBA currently does not meet the unique needs of some First Nations communities. They also suggest that specific adaptations of existing water management strategies to the MBA framework may lead to a more effective approach to ensure safe drinking water for First Nations communities. This thesis focuses on several key ways to make these changes: Strengthen public involvement and awareness; Introduce effective legislative and policy frameworks; Encourage research, science and technology for First Nations’ water management; Allocate sufficient financial resources to First Nations to recruit, train and retain qualified water managers and maintain drinking water infrastructure, and; Increase efforts to ensure that water management goals are supported by local and indigenous traditional knowledge, beliefs and perspectives.

The Western James Bay region of northern Ontario (the Mushkegowuk Territory) is home to some of Canada’s largest wetlands and most pristine ecosystems. This region is also home to approximately 10,000 Omushekgo Cree who inhabit four First Nation communities. Environmental change due to climate change and major resource development are a reality to the people of this sub-arctic region. Furthermore, it is predicted that climate change will have amplified impacts in northern climates. Climate change has and will continue to have impacts on the distribution of species in arctic and sub-arctic ecosystems. To date, it is not clear to what extent these distributional changes in species due to climate change will have on First Nations’ place-based relationship with the land and what measures the Cree will take to adapt to these changes. The University of Waterloo’s Computer Systems Group has developed an approach and toolkit for the development of web-based, spatial data and information management systems referred to as collaborative geomatics. This system allows for place-based information, environmental and traditional environmental knowledge (TEK) storage and sharing between First Nation communities. And allows for the development of adaptive strategies and plans for future land use activities in the face of further resource development. This collaborative geomatic system has been designed with First Nation input and has been demonstrated to Chiefs and Councils of the Mushkegowuk Territory. Collaborative geomatics is an interactive, web-based, informatics tool that has been designed to store data, in a secure and culturally-appropriate framework on high-resolution satellite imagery. High-resolution imagery will become the backdrop to placed-based and TEK data. Community members will have the ability to input locations (e.g., significant sites, such as, seasonal camps and hunting locations) on the map in addition to uploading tabular and media data. This allows for the generation of dynamic and robust spatially-relevant information and knowledge-base. Beginning in August of 2009, formal and informal meetings were held with personnel from the Lands and Resources unit of Mushkegowuk Council, First Nations Chiefs and Councils (the elected local government), and other community members of MooseCree First Nation, Fort Albany First Nation, Kashechewan First Nation, Attawapiskat First Nation, and Weenusk First Nation to gather their assessment (i.e., viability) of the Mushkegowuk collaborative geomatics tool. Together with this formative assessment process, 16 semi-directive interviews (from October 2010 to February 2011) were conducted with community members of Fort Albany First Nations. Interview participants were purposively sampled and included: Chief & Council members, First Nation office personnel, education personnel, health services personnel, elders (≥60 years of age), and young adults. Each interview was audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Following an adapted grounded theory methodological approach, the transcripts of each interview were coded and categorized according to themes. Throughout the assessment process, the research team received constructive feedback on the system. Each participant noted the utility of the tool to be used in the education of younger generations. Furthermore, participants felt that they would be able to use the tool to store TEK and help monitor environmental change. The greatest strength of the system was seen to be the visualization of information in numerous media forms (pictures and videos), while the greatest perceived weakness of the system was the security of the information. However, once user accessibility (usernames and passwords) was explained the concern over security of information was greatly reduced. This collaborative geomatic system has the potential to enhance the Mushkegowuk First Nations’ adaptive capacity to address environmental change by allowing them to make informed decisions, utilizing the knowledge stored in the collaborative geomatics tool.