Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The air-to-air refuelling of large aircraft presents challenges such as a long fuel transfer time, slow aircraft responses and a large distance between the aircraft CG and the receptacle position. This project addresses some of these issues by adding a control system to keep the receiver aircraft in the correct position relative to the tanker to enable fuel transfer. This project investigates different control strategies which are designed to control the A330-300 during refuelling at one trim condition. The controllers are based on a mathematical aircraft model which was derived from a simulation model received from Airbus. The first set of controllers uses the aircraft actuators directly. Controllers that are based on the CG dynamics and the receptacle dynamics are compared. Due to the large distance between the CG and the receptacle it was found to be essential to control the receptacle position, and not only the CG position. Also, a controller that is based on a model of the receptacle dynamics performs better. The second set of controllers uses the aircraft manual control laws as an inner loop controller. This set of controllers and the last direct actuator controller use the same axial controller that uses the engine thrust to control axial position. It was found that both the direct actuator controller and the manual control laws controller are able to keep the receptacle within the disconnect envelope in moderate turbulence. In both sets of controllers the axial controller fails to keep the receptacle reliably within the disconnect envelope in light turbulence. From the results it is concluded that both the direct actuator control and manual control laws can be used to successfully control the receptacle position in the normal and lateral positions as long as the receptacle kinematics are included in the control design. Using only the engine thrust for axial control is insufficient. Several recommendations are made to improve the axial control and also how these results can be used in future work. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die lug-tot-lug brandstof hervulling van groot vliegtuie het uitdagings soos ’n lang hervullingstyd, stadige vliegtuig dinamika en ’n groot afstand tussen die hervullingspoort en die vliegtuig massamiddelpunt. Hierdie projek spreek sommige van hierdie uitdagings aan deur ’n beheerstelsel by te voeg wat die vliegtuig in die korrekte posisie relatief tot die tenker hou vir brandstofoordrag om plaas te vind. Hierdie projek ondersoek verskillende beheerstrategieë wat ontwerp is om die A330- 300 te beheer by ’n enkele gestadigde toestand. Die beheerders is gebaseer op ’n wiskundige vliegtuigmodel wat vanaf ’n simulasiemodel afgelei is. Die simulasiemodel is vanaf Airbus verkry. Die eerste stel beheerders beheer direk die vliegtuig se beheeroppervlakke. Beheerders wat onderskeidelik die massamiddelpunt en die hervullingspoort beheer word vergelyk. Daar is gevind dat dit essensieel is om die hervullingspoort te beheer en nie slegs die massamiddelpunt nie, as gevolg van die groot afstand tussen hierdie twee punte. Die tweede stel beheerders gebruik die vliegtuig se eie beheerwette as ’n binnelusbeheerder en vorm self die buitelus. Albei stelle beheerders gebruik dieselfde aksiale beheerder wat enjin stukrag gebruik om die aksiale posisie te beheer. Daar is gevind dat beide stelle beheerders die hervullingspoort binne die ontkoppelingsbestek kan hou in die normale en laterale rigtings tydens matige turbulensie. In beide stelle beheerders is dit die aksiale beheerder wat faal om die hervullingspoort betroubaar in posisie te hou, selfs in ligte turbulensie. Vanaf die resultate word afgelei dat beide die direkte beheerder en die buitelusbeheerder gepas is om die laterale en normale posisiebeheer toe te pas mits die dinamika van die hervullingspoort in ag geneem word. Om slegs stukrag te gebruik vir aksiale beheer is nie voldoende nie, en verskeie voorstelle word gemaak om die aksiale beheer te verbeter in toekomstige navorsing.

Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. 220 leaves single printed pages ,preliminary pages i-xiv and numberd pages 1-188.Includes bibliography.list of figures and used a Hp Scanjet 8250 Scanner to pdf format (OCR), / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis describes the process followed to determine the short-term control and stability derivatives of an ASK-13 glider (ZS-GHB). The short-term control and stability derivatives are obtained by parameter estimation done using data recorded in flight. The algorithm used is the MMLE3 implementation of a maximum likelihood estimator. To collect the flight data sensors were installed in the ZS-GHB. Sensors measuring the control surface deflections, translation acceleration, angular rates and the dynamic and static pressure are needed to provide enough data for the estimation. To estimate accurate derivatives specific manoeuvres were flown by the pilot, to ensure that all the modes of the glider were stimulated. The results reveal that the control and stability derivatives estimated from the flight data are not very accurate but are still suitable to be used in simulating the glider's motion. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis beskryf die proses wat gebruik is om die kort periode beheer en stabiliteit afgeleides van 'n ASK-13 sweeftuig vas te stel. Die kort periode beheer en stabiliteit afgeleides is verkry deur parameter afskatting op data wat gedurend vlugte van die sweeftuig opgeneem is. Die algoritme wat gebruik is om die parameters af te skat is die MMLE3 voorstelling van 'n maksimale moontlikheid afskatter. Om vlug data te versamel sensore moes in die sweeftuig geinstalleer word. Die sensore meet beheer oppervlak hoeke, versnellings, hoeksnellhede en die dinamies en statiese lugdruk om te verseker dat daar genoeg data is vir die afskatting. Om die afgeskatte parameters akkuraad te kry moet die loods spesefieke manoeuvres vlieg om seker te maak dat al die moduse van die sweeftuig is gestimuleer. Die resultate wat gelewer is 'n stel kort periode beheer en stabiliteit afgeleides wat nie akkuraad is nie, maar wat weI goed genoeg is or ie bewegings van die sweeftuig te simuleer.

This thesis investigates the possibility of using reinforcement learning (RL) techniques to create a flight controller for a quadrotor Micro Aerial Vehicle (MAV). A capable flight control system is a core requirement of any unmanned aerial vehicle. The challenging and diverse applications in which MAVs are destined to be used, mean that considerable time and effort need to be put into designing and commissioning suitable flight controllers. It is proposed that reinforcement learning, a subset of machine learning, could be used to address some of the practical difficulties. While much research has delved into RL in unmanned aerial vehicle applications, this work has tended to ignore low level motion control, or been concerned only in off-line learning regimes. This thesis addresses an area in which accessible information is scarce: the performance of RL when used for on-policy motion control. Trying out a candidate algorithm on a real MAV is a simple but expensive proposition. In place of such an approach, this research details the development of a suitable simulator environment, in which a prototype controller might be evaluated. Then inquiry then proposes a possible RL-based control system, utilising the Q-learning algorithm, with an adaptive RBF-network providing function approximation. The operation of this prototypical control system is then tested in detail, to determine both the absolute level of performance which can be expected, and the effect which tuning critical parameters of the algorithm has on the functioning of the controller. Performance is compared against a conventional PID controller to maximise the usability of the results by a wide audience. Testing considers behaviour in the presence of disturbances, and run-time changes in plant dynamics. Results show that given sufficient learning opportunity, a RL-based control system performs as well as a simple PID controller. However, unstable behaviour during learning is an issue for future analysis. Additionally, preliminary testing is performed to evaluate the feasibility of implementing RL algorithms in an embedded computing environment, as a general requirement for a MAV flight controller. Whilst the algorithm runs successfully in an embedded context, observation reveals further development would be necessary to reduce computation time to a level where a controller was able to update sufficiently quickly for a real-time motion control application. In summary, the study provides a critical assessment of the feasibility of using RL algorithms for motion control tasks, such as MAV flight control. Advantages which merit interest are exposed, though practical considerations suggest at this stage, that such a control system is not a realistic proposition. There is a discussion of avenues which may uncover possibilities to surmount these challenges. This investigation will prove useful for engineers interested in the opportunities which reinforcement learning techniques represent.

O presente trabalho descreve a aplicação de um método de ajuste de modelo, com base em resultados experimentais obtidos em túnel de vento, a uma aeronave com sistema de aumento de estabilidade longitudinal (LSAS). O estudo inclui uma revisão de métodos para ajuste de modelos, o desenvolvimento do modelo matemático da aeronave e uma descrição dos ensaios em túnel de vento da aeronave com o LSAS. O sistema automático de controle é composto de (1) um sistema de aquisição de dados, que processa o sinal do sensor e envia um sinal de comando para o atuador; (2) um potenciômetro, usado como sensor de ângulo de arfagem; e (3) um servo motor, usado como atuador do canard. O modelo de aeronave é baseado no Grumman X-29, que tem asa de enflechamento negativo e canard. Sua margem de estabilidade estática pode ser ajustada mudando a posição do centro de rotação que, por sua vez, coincide com a posição do centro de gravidade da aeronave através de balanceamento do peso. O ajuste do modelo matemático do avião é conduzido, no ambiente Matlab/Simulink, com a modificação dos parâmetros das derivadas de estabilidade da aeronave, do filtro digital e da dinâmica do sensor e do atuador. O objetivo é obter uma correlação ótima entre resultados teóricos e experimentais. O método da análise da sensibilidade paramétrica é escolhido para o ajuste do modelo. Numa primeira fase do estudo, a comparação entre resultados experimentais e numéricos é feita com base nas freqüências e razões de amortecimento da variação do ângulo de arfagem em resposta a uma entrada do tipo impulso de deflexão do canard. Numa segunda fase a comparação é baseada diretamente na resposta no tempo do ângulo de arfagem numérico e experimental para a mesma entrada impulso do canard. Três posições do centro de gravidade são analisadas, uma em que a aeronave é estaticamente estável e duas em que ela é instável. Os resultados mostram grande variação dos parâmetros ajustados indicando a necessidade de aperfeiçoamento na implementação da metodologia utilizada. / The present work describes the application of a model updating method, based on experimental wind tunnel data to an aircraft longitudinal stability augmentation system (LSAS). The study includes a revision of model updating methods, the development of the aircraft mathematical model and the description of a previously conducted, aircraft LSAS wind tunnel testing. The LSAS is comprised by (1) a data acquisition system, which processes the sensor signal and sends the control command to the actuator; (2) a potentiometer, used as a pitch angle sensor; and (3) a servo motor, used to actuate canard deflection. The aircraft model is based on the Grumman X-29, which has canard and forward swept wing. Its static stability margin can be adjusted by changing the center of rotation position which, in turn, coincides with the aircraft center of gravity position through weight balance. The airplane mathematical model updating is carried out, in the Matlab/Simulink environment, by adjusting model parameters for aircraft stability derivatives, digital filter, sensor and servo dynamics. The objective is to obtain an optimal correlation between numerical and experimental results. The parametric sensitivity analysis method is chosen for model updating. In a first phase of the study the comparison between theoretical and experimental results is based on frequencies and damping ratios for aircraft pitch angle response to an impulse canard deflection input. In a second phase the comparison is based directly on experimental and numerical pitch angle time response to the same impulse canard deflection input. Three center of gravity positions are analyzed, one for which the aircraft is statically stable and two for which it is unstable. Results show large variations among adjusted parameters indicating the need for improvements in the implementation of the adopted methodology.

This thesis presents an adaptive model reference controller for a highly maneuverable high performance aircraft, in particular, a modified F18. An adaptive controller is developed to maneuver an aircraft at a high angle of attack. Thus, the aircraft is required to fly over a highly nonlinear flight regime. The adaptive controller presented in this thesis can be viewed as a combination of a linear and a nonlinear controller. Around a fixed flight condition the adaptive controller converges to a linear controller; however, the controller remains a nonlinear controller during maneuvers. The contributions of this thesis lie in two areas. The first area is in control. A successful application of linear adaptive control is presented for a highly nonlinear system. A new method is used to generate the reference trajectory. The reference model uses output feedback to improve the reference trajectory. It is shown that this improvement is necessary because of the control limitations. This work is also important to the control of highly maneuverable high performance aircraft. A successful adaptive controller has been developed to rapidly maneuver an aircraft to a high angle of attack. The main focus of this thesis is adaptive control. / Graduation date: 1993

This thesis considers the problem of designing gain scheduled flight control system (FCS) for large transport aircraft that satisfy handling qualities criteria. The goal is to design a set of local Linear Time Invariant (LTI) controllers to cover the wide non- linear aircraft operation flight envelope from the viewpoint of the handling qualities assessment. The global gain scheduler is then designed that interpolates between the gains of the local controllers in order to transfer smoothly between different equilibrium points, and more importantly to satisfy the handling qualities over the entire flight envelope. The mathematical model of the Boeing 747-100/200 aircraft is selected for the purpose of the flight controller design and handling qualities as- sessment. In order to achieve an attitude hold characteristic, and also improve the dynamic tracking behavior of the aircraft, longitudinal pitch Rate Command-Attitude Hold (RCAH) controllers are designed as the local flight controllers at the specific equilib- rium points in the flight envelope by means of a state space pole placement design procedure. The handling qualities assessment of the aircraft is presented, based on which the scheduler is designed. A number of existing criteria are employed to assess the han- dling qualities of the aircraft, including the Control Anticipation Parameter (CAP), Neal and Smith, and C∗ criteria. The gain scheduled flight controller is found to have satisfactory handling qualities. The global gain scheduler is designed by interpolating the gains of the local flight controllers in order to transfer smoothly between different equilibrium points, and more importantly to satisfy the handling qualities over the flight envelope. The main contribution of this research is the combination of the gain scheduling technique based on the local controller design approach and handling qualities as- sessment. The controllers are designed based at a number of operating points and the interpolation between them (scheduling) takes place through the scheduling scheme functions. The aircraft augmented with gain-scheduled controller performs satisfactorily and meets the requirement of handling qualities. Moreover, the per- formance using the gain-scheduled controller is considerably improved compared to the performance using the fixed one.

This master's thesis deals with the control design method called Non-linear Dynamic Inversion (NDI) and how it can be applied to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). In this thesis, simulations are conducted using a model for the unmanned aerial vehicle SHARC (Swedish Highly Advanced Research Configuration), which Saab AB is developing. The idea with NDI is to cancel the non-linear dynamics and then the system can be controlled as a linear system. This design method needs much information about the system, or the output will not be as desired. Since it is impossible to know the exact mathematical model of a system, some kind of robust control theory is needed. In this thesis integral action is used. A problem with NDI is that the mathematical model of a system is often very complex, which means that the controller also will be complex. Therefore, a controller that uses pure NDI is only discussed, and the simulations are instead based on approximations that use a cascaded NDI. Two such methods are investigated. One that uses much information from aerodata tables, and one that uses the derivatives of some measured outputs. Both methods generate satisfying results. The outputs from the second method are more oscillatory but the method is found to be more robust. If the signals are noisy, indications are that method one will be better.

This thesis describes the automatic flight control systems designed for a conventional and an over actuated unmanned air vehicle (UAV). A nonlinear simulation model including the flight mechanics equations together with the interpolated nonlinear aerodynamics, environmental effects, mass-inertia properties, thrust calculations and actuator dynamics is created / trim and linearization codes are developed. Automatic flight control system of the conventional UAV is designed by using both classical and robust control methods. Performances of the designs for full autonomous flight are tested through nonlinear simulations for different maneuvers in the presence of uncertainties and disturbances in the aircraft model. The fault tolerant control of an over actuated UAV is the main concern of the thesis. The flight control system is designed using classical control techniques. Two static control allocation methods are examined: Moore-Penrose pseudo inverse and blended inverse. For this purpose, an aircraft with three sets of ailerons is employed. It is shown that with redundant control surfaces, fault tolerant control is possible. Although both of the static control allocation methods are found to be quite successful to realize the maneuvers, the new blended inverse algorithm is shown to be more effective in controlling the aircraft when some of the control surfaces are lost. It is also demonstrated that, with redundant control surfaces it is possible to recover the aircraft during a maneuver even some of the control surfaces are damaged or got stuck at a particular deflection.

This thesis presents an integrated framework for online obstacle avoidance of rotary-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which can provide UAVs an obstacle field navigation capability in a partially or completely unknown obstacle-rich environment. The framework is composed of a LIDAR interface, a local obstacle grid generation, a receding horizon (RH) trajectory optimizer, a global shortest path search algorithm, and a climb rate limit detection logic. The key feature of the framework is the use of an optimization-based trajectory generation in which the obstacle avoidance problem is formulated as a nonlinear trajectory optimization problem with state and input constraints over the finite range of the sensor. This local trajectory optimization is combined with a global path search algorithm which provides a useful initial guess to the nonlinear optimization solver. Optimization is the natural process of finding the best trajectory that is dynamically feasible, safe within the vehicle's flight envelope, and collision-free at the same time. The optimal trajectory is continuously updated in real time by the numerical optimization solver, Nonlinear Trajectory Generation (NTG), which is a direct solver based on the spline approximation of trajectory for dynamically flat systems. In fact, the overall approach of this thesis to finding the optimal trajectory is similar to the model predictive control (MPC) or the receding horizon control (RHC), except that this thesis followed a two-layer design; thus, the optimal solution works as a guidance command to be followed by the controller of the vehicle. The framework is implemented in a real-time simulation environment, the Georgia Tech UAV Simulation Tool (GUST), and integrated in the onboard software of the rotary-wing UAV test-bed at Georgia Tech. Initially, the 2D vertical avoidance capability of real obstacles was tested in flight. Then the flight test evaluations were extended to the benchmark tests for 3D avoidance capability over the virtual obstacles, and finally it was demonstrated on real obstacles located at the McKenna MOUT site in Fort Benning, Georgia. Simulations and flight test evaluations demonstrate the feasibility of the developed framework for UAV applications involving low-altitude flight in an urban area.

<p>This master's thesis deals with the control design method called Non-linear Dynamic Inversion (NDI) and how it can be applied to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). In this thesis, simulations are conducted using a model for the unmanned aerial vehicle SHARC (Swedish Highly Advanced Research Configuration), which Saab AB is developing. </p><p>The idea with NDI is to cancel the non-linear dynamics and then the system can be controlled as a linear system. This design method needs much information about the system, or the output will not be as desired. Since it is impossible to know the exact mathematical model of a system, some kind of robust control theory is needed. In this thesis integral action is used. </p><p>A problem with NDI is that the mathematical model of a system is often very complex, which means that the controller also will be complex. Therefore, a controller that uses pure NDI is only discussed, and the simulations are instead based on approximations that use a cascaded NDI. Two such methods are investigated. One that uses much information from aerodata tables, and one that uses the derivatives of some measured outputs. Both methods generate satisfying results. The outputs from the second method are more oscillatory but the method is found to be more robust. If the signals are noisy, indications are that method one will be better.</p>