Over recent years, community resilience has been increasing in popularity as a topic for detailed study. During that time, academic researchers have been working to untangle the complex network of social relationships that define the concept. In parallel, some institutions have set the achievement of enhanced community resilience as a policy goal. This research has sought to assist in both areas: first, by contributing to the academic debate and second, to build a clearer understanding of how institutions can tailor policies to ensure success in their goal of enhancing community resilience. A case study approach was adopted for the research, centring on three communities in the Teign Estuary of South Devon (Newton Abbot, Teignmouth and Shaldon). All three communities were vulnerable to tidal flooding and links between the communities and institutions responsible for managing flood risk (FRM framework) were analysed. In the analysis, a specific form of social capital was studied: social capital derived from community-institution links (CISC). CISC was found to be effective in revealing links with the greatest potential to enhance the resilience of communities against flood risks. To assess resilience at the individual and community level, a maturity based model was used. The assessment found disparities between how resilience matures at the community level compared to the individual level. Specifically, resilience maturity in communities was revealed as a less linear process. As such, the case study communities were able to exhibit traits associated with low resilience maturity at the same time as exhibiting traits associated with high resilience maturity. This research concluded that the UK FRM policy framework was robust, aligning well with academic theory. However, the FRM system was revealed as being dominated by expert elites. These elites are mainly public sector based and were judged to be stifling the engagement of the private sector at the local level. To enhance their resilience, this study determined that communities need to investment in CISC, but that investment must not just be targeted at public sector FRM institutions alone, it also needs to target private sector FRM institutions.

The development of suitable long term flood risk intervention strategies is a challenge. Climate change alone is a significant complication but in addition complexities exist trying to identify the most appropriate set of interventions, the area with the highest economical benefit and the most opportune time for implementation. All of these elements pose difficulties to decision makers. Recently, there has been a shift in the current practice for appraising potential strategies and consideration is now being given to ensure flexible, adaptive strategies to account for the uncertain climatic conditions. Real Options in particular is becoming an acknowledged approach to account for the future uncertainties inherent in a flood risk investment decision. Real Options facilitates adaptive strategies as it enables the value of flexibility to be explicitly included within the decision making process. Opportunities are provided for the decision maker to modify and update investments when knowledge of the future state comes to light. In this thesis the use of Real Options in flood risk management is investigated as a method to account for the uncertainties of climate change. Each Intervention strategy is purposely designed to capture a level of flexibility and have the ability to adapt in the future if required. A state of the art flood risk analysis tool is employed to evaluate the risk associated to each strategy over future points in time. In addition to Real Options, this thesis also explores the use of evolutionary optimisation algorithms to aid the decision making process when identifying the most appropriate long term strategies. Although the risk analysis tool is capable of quantifying the potential benefits attributed to a strategy, it is not necessarily able to identify the most appropriate. Methods are required which can search for the optimal solutions according to a range of performance metrics. Single and multi-objective genetic algorithms are investigated in this thesis as a method to search for the most appropriate long term intervention strategies. The Real Options concepts are combined with the evolutionary multiobjective optimisation algorithm to create a decision support methodology which is capable of searching for the most appropriate long term economical yet robust intervention strategies which are flexible to future change. The methodology is applied to two individual case studies, a section of the Thames Estuary and an area on the River Dodder. The results show the inclusion of flexibility is advantageous while the outputs provide decision makers with supplementary knowledge which previously has not been considered.

Flood events have become more frequent in Europe, and the adaptation to the increasing flood risks is needed. The Flood Directive set up a series of measures to increase European resilience, establishing Flood Risk Management Plans (FRMPs) at the level of the river basin district as one relevant action. In order to efficiently fulfil this objective, the involvement of stakeholders as well as the analysis of their roles, responsibilities, and demands has been considered to be crucial to develop FRMPs. As a result, the hypothesis tested in this paper is that a consensus solution for the 2021 update Austrian Flood Risk Management Plan is feasible. To demonstrate this, both in-depth interviews and questionnaires to key Austrian stakeholders are implemented. The information collected in both participatory techniques are then used to run a conflict prevention analysis. The results show that (a) improving the coordination among regions and including better land-use planning approaches are preferable to a hypothetical business as usual scenario; and (b) a consensus solution for the 2021 update Austrian FRMP might be achievable on the basis of both a deep discussion on the state-of-the art and green infrastructure development.

Achieving resilient outcomes in the water sector is an area of emerging policy and research focus in light of a combination of threats such as climate change, increasing demand, urbanisation, and population growth. Consequences of these threats require that in order to achieve these resilient outcomes, urban water management socio-technical systems require various interventions at different levels. This includes the water user level and highlights the need for greater understanding of households in implementing coping interventions to address extreme system failures of drought and flooding. A combination of methodological approaches, data collection and analytical methods have been used to develop detailed understanding of water service user perceptions and intentions towards drought and flood coping in order to engender action for resilient water management at the household and community levels. Practitioner interviews have provided insight into core issues of household and community level participatory approaches for addressing drought and flood resilience. These include cross-cutting themes relating to modes of communication and engagement, the influence of past experience, empowerment, and the influence of social networks. Results of a questionnaire survey within the framework of Protection Motivation Theory facilitated understanding of the linkages among threat, consequences, and coping intentions. The most significant indicators of behavioural intentions were the perceived effectiveness of coping response measures, consequences of drought or flooding, and costs. These variables were significant in defining sub-groups at three different decision-stages after Trans-theoretical Model. Households were at early decision stages with regards to flood coping, namely `Pre-contemplative' and `Contemplative'. Pre-contemplatives had low behavioural intentions and were driven by low efficacy and low consequences. Contemplatives had low-medium intentions, expected either that cost would be a limiting factor, measures ineffective, or consequences too low to warrant action. `Responsives', only found in relation to drought coping, had already implemented several coping measures. Despite low drought consequences, cost was not a limiting factor and measures were perceived to be effective, illustrating the potential for increased household drought coping or more sustainable water use practices. This study provides important baseline data on household perceptions and intentions to cope with droughts and floods not yet widely explored in the UK. The innovative use of cluster analysis to identify and explore decision-stages provides methodological contributions to the literature. Finally, the thesis has led to the development of an assessment and decision framework to promote action towards resilient water management at the household and community levels. This framework is the basis of a toolkit that was co-created with communities and practitioners with the outcome of communities developing action plans to address the consequences of drought and flooding.

Ao longo do século XXI, a cultura de solidariedade dentro de uma bacia hidrográfica é baseada em aspectos legais. No caso brasileiro, isto é legitimado pela Constituição Federal de 1988, artigo 225, caput, \"Todos têm direito ao meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, bem de uso comum do povo e essencial à sadia qualidade de vida, impondo-se ao Poder Público e à coletividade o dever de defendê-lo e preservá-lo para as presentes e futuras gerações\", e no artigo 3º que trata dos objetivos fundamentais da República Federativa do Brasil, entre eles, o inciso I que diz \"construir uma sociedade livre, justa e solidária\". Ainda neste contexto, o Código Civil Brasileiro, no artigo 265 menciona \"...a solidariedade não se presume; isto é, resulta da lei ou a vontade das partes...\". Também, visando uma gestão compartilhada, a Lei Federal 9.433/1997 cita no artigo 1º \"... a bacia hidrográfica é uma unidade territorial para políticas recursos hídricos... (V)\", e \"... a gestão dos recursos hídricos deve ser descentralizada e contar com a participação do Poder Público, dos usuários e das comunidades \"(VI). Desta forma, emerge o princípio de hidrossolidariedade destes contextos pré-mencionados nos cenários de discussão nacional e internacional. Esta pesquisa avaliou as limitações e os alcances do conceito de hidrossolidariedade, por meio da participação da comunidade nos problemas de drenagem urbana, com foco na gestão de risco de inundações. Embora a hidrossolidariedade seja um conceito pouco conhecido no Brasil, esta pesquisa estudou a viabilidade deste conceito com os atores sociais interessados em diferentes escalas espaciais da drenagem urbana: tanto na escala de lote domiciliar como na escala da bacia hidrográfica. A metodologia avaliou incentivos para os usuários da comunidade que aceitaram as ferramentas de hidrossolidariedade frente a problemas ambientais na gestão de inundações urbanas. Essas atitudes buscaram estimular a solidariedade e a responsabilidade cidadã na dimensão espaço-temporal. Em uma bacia estudada, os usuários participaram da criação de uma associação legalmente constituída por meio da metodologia explicada nesta pesquisa: \"Associação Amigos da Bacia do Tijuco Preto.\" Utilizou-se como ferramenta confirmatória entrevistas pessoais com usuários de duas bacias hidrográficas, Tijuco Preto e Gregório; analisaram-se dúvidas e realimentações de informações para propor e planejar a tomada de decisões no gerenciamento de recursos hídricos. Esta gestão foi caracterizada como participativa, compartilhada, integrada e continuada. Resultados da pesquisa apontaram que as partes possuem interesse e disponibilidade para desenvolver e compartilhar seu conhecimento sobre gestão de risco de inundação, bem como o espírito participativo e de solidariedade, para aplicação em sua comunidade com a finalidade de melhoria ambiental e bem estar do ser humano. / Throughout the XXI century, a culture of solidarity within a river basin is based on legal aspects. In Brazil, it is legitimated by the Federal Constitution of 1988, article 225, caput, \"Everybody is entitled to a ecologically-balanced environment, as well of common using by the people and essential to a healthy life quality, being imposed to the Public Power and the collective society the duty to defend it and to preserve it for the presents and future generations\". In the article 3 states about the fundamental objectives of the Federal Republic of Brazil, where in the item I says \"to build a free, just and solidarity society.\" Still in this context, the Brazilian Civil Code, in the article 265 mentions \"... the solidarity it is not presumed by itself; it is the result by law or by the willingness of the parties....\" Also, seeking a shared management, the Federal Law 9.433/1997 mention in the article 1 \"... the river basin is a territorial unit for water policies... (V)\", and \"... water resources should be decentralized and to count with the participation of the Public Power, of the users and of the communities\" (VI). Thus, the \"hydrosolidarity\" emerged from those fore-mentioned contexts at national and international arena. This research assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the concept of hydrosolidarity, thereby analyzing an application to urban drainage with community participation. Although hydrosolidarity is a concept not well known in Brazil, this research studied the feasibility of this concept with stakeholder and at different scales, either at the domiciliary lot or at the whole river basin scale. The methodology evaluated incentives for the community\'s users that accepted the tools of hydrosolidarity front to environmental problems in the management of urban floods. Those attitudes promoted stimuli toward citizenship solidarity and responsibility at spatiotemporal dimensions. Urban river basin users participated through the statements of the bylaws of a river basin association officially constituted through this research: the \"Association Friends of Tijuco Preto River Basin\". Through personal interviews to uses from two urban river basins, Tijuco Preto and Gregório, some doubts and feedbacks were surveyed in order to propose planning and decisionmaking on water management featured as participative, integrated and continuous. Results of the research depicted that social stakeholders had interests and willingness to develop and share their knowledge on flood risk management as well their participative solidarity to be applied into the community looking forward to achieving a higher environment and human well-being.

O número e a intensidade dos desastres naturais têm aumentado em todo o mundo devido às mudanças climáticas. Atualmente, as inundações representam a maior parte dos desastres naturais e causam mais danos, mortes e impactos econômicos do que qualquer outro tipo de fenômeno natural. No Brasil, as inundações se intensificam principalmente no período de chuvas, entre os meses de Dezembro e Março, ocasionando dezenas de mortes, além de impactos econômicos, sociais e ambientais. Assim, prevenir esse tipo de desastre tem se tornado um fator importante para minimizar os impactos por ele provocados. Para isso, são necessárias informações atualizadas, completas e precisas sobre o atual estado das variáveis ambientais. Nesse contexto, as informações voluntárias estão sendo utilizadas como fonte de dados complementar para a gestão de risco de inundação, devido ao número elevado de voluntários que atuam como \"sensores\". Contudo, outras informações relacionadas a inundação estão dispersas em diferentes fontes de dados, dificultando as ações de resposta das agências de emergência. Neste trabalho e proposta uma abordagem que visa apoiar a gestão de risco de inundação, fornecendo mecanismos para a obtenção de informações voluntárias para esse contexto e permitindo a disponibilização dessas por meio de serviços geoespaciais em tempo real. Para tanto, mecanismos de interpretação foram definidos para apoiar os voluntários durante a análise e medição da altura da água, sendo essas informações fornecidas por meio de uma plataforma de crowdsourcing. Além disso, um framework foi desenvolvido a fim de disponibilizar as informações voluntárias de forma interoperável por meio de serviços geoespaciais. Ao final, foram realizados estudos experimentais para avaliar a eficácia dos mecanismos desenvolvidos para a obtenção de informações voluntárias para gestão de risco de inundação / The number and intensity of natural disasters have increased worldwide due to climate change. Currently, floods represent most natural disasters and cause more damage, deaths and economic impacts than any other natural phenomenon. In Brazil, the floods are intensified especially during the rainy season, between the months of December and March, causing dozens of deaths, as well as economic, social and environmental impacts. Thus, preventing this kind of disaster has become an important factor to minimize the impacts caused by it. For this, it\'s necessary up-to-date, complete and accurate information about the current state of the environmental variable. In this context, volunteer information is being used as a complementary data source for flood risk management, due to the high number of volunteers who act as \"sensors\". However, other information related to flooding are scattered in different data sources, hindering response actions of emergency agencies. This dissertation proposes an approach to support flood risk management, providing mechanisms for obtaining volunteer information for this context and allowing the availability of these by means of geospatial services in real time. For this, interpretation mechanisms were defined to support the volunteers during the analysis and measurement of the water height, being this information provided by means of crowdsourcing platform. Additionally, a framework was developed to provide volunteer information in an interoperable way through geospatial services. Finally, experimental studies were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the mechanisms developed to obtaining volunteer information for flood risk management

This master thesis analyses two citizen initiatives; the flood action plan of LLanddowror, Wales and the mount plan of the Overdiepse Polder, the Netherlands. It uses the collaboration theory, the ladder of citizen participation, cross-scale interaction and community resilience to explain the role of citizens in flood risk management. The aim of this research is to see how governments facilitate citizens and if culture and context influence the roles of governments and citizens. The Welsh system is bottom-up with an increasing role for market and civil society to take responsibilities. Citizens generally insure themselves against flood damage. The Welsh system has enhanced community engagement and creating awareness is important. Dealing with big strategic issues seems to be difficult. The Dutch flood governance is more top-down which means less room for citizen initiatives. Citizens are not insured for flood damage since the government profiles itself responsible for floods therefore awareness amongst citizens is low. The Dutch system has benefits when dealing with large scaled projects but has issues with creating awareness as well as engaging citizens in water development. Assumingly there are opportunities for both countries to learn from each others’ way of dealing with flood risk management and citizen engagement.

O número e a intensidade dos desastres naturais têm aumentado em todo o mundo devido às mudanças climáticas. Atualmente, as inundações representam a maior parte dos desastres naturais e causam mais danos, mortes e impactos econômicos do que qualquer outro tipo de fenômeno natural. No Brasil, as inundações se intensificam principalmente no período de chuvas, entre os meses de Dezembro e Março, ocasionando dezenas de mortes, além de impactos econômicos, sociais e ambientais. Assim, prevenir esse tipo de desastre tem se tornado um fator importante para minimizar os impactos por ele provocados. Para isso, são necessárias informações atualizadas, completas e precisas sobre o atual estado das variáveis ambientais. Nesse contexto, as informações voluntárias estão sendo utilizadas como fonte de dados complementar para a gestão de risco de inundação, devido ao número elevado de voluntários que atuam como \"sensores\". Contudo, outras informações relacionadas a inundação estão dispersas em diferentes fontes de dados, dificultando as ações de resposta das agências de emergência. Neste trabalho e proposta uma abordagem que visa apoiar a gestão de risco de inundação, fornecendo mecanismos para a obtenção de informações voluntárias para esse contexto e permitindo a disponibilização dessas por meio de serviços geoespaciais em tempo real. Para tanto, mecanismos de interpretação foram definidos para apoiar os voluntários durante a análise e medição da altura da água, sendo essas informações fornecidas por meio de uma plataforma de crowdsourcing. Além disso, um framework foi desenvolvido a fim de disponibilizar as informações voluntárias de forma interoperável por meio de serviços geoespaciais. Ao final, foram realizados estudos experimentais para avaliar a eficácia dos mecanismos desenvolvidos para a obtenção de informações voluntárias para gestão de risco de inundação / The number and intensity of natural disasters have increased worldwide due to climate change. Currently, floods represent most natural disasters and cause more damage, deaths and economic impacts than any other natural phenomenon. In Brazil, the floods are intensified especially during the rainy season, between the months of December and March, causing dozens of deaths, as well as economic, social and environmental impacts. Thus, preventing this kind of disaster has become an important factor to minimize the impacts caused by it. For this, it\'s necessary up-to-date, complete and accurate information about the current state of the environmental variable. In this context, volunteer information is being used as a complementary data source for flood risk management, due to the high number of volunteers who act as \"sensors\". However, other information related to flooding are scattered in different data sources, hindering response actions of emergency agencies. This dissertation proposes an approach to support flood risk management, providing mechanisms for obtaining volunteer information for this context and allowing the availability of these by means of geospatial services in real time. For this, interpretation mechanisms were defined to support the volunteers during the analysis and measurement of the water height, being this information provided by means of crowdsourcing platform. Additionally, a framework was developed to provide volunteer information in an interoperable way through geospatial services. Finally, experimental studies were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the mechanisms developed to obtaining volunteer information for flood risk management

Ao longo do século XXI, a cultura de solidariedade dentro de uma bacia hidrográfica é baseada em aspectos legais. No caso brasileiro, isto é legitimado pela Constituição Federal de 1988, artigo 225, caput, \"Todos têm direito ao meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, bem de uso comum do povo e essencial à sadia qualidade de vida, impondo-se ao Poder Público e à coletividade o dever de defendê-lo e preservá-lo para as presentes e futuras gerações\", e no artigo 3º que trata dos objetivos fundamentais da República Federativa do Brasil, entre eles, o inciso I que diz \"construir uma sociedade livre, justa e solidária\". Ainda neste contexto, o Código Civil Brasileiro, no artigo 265 menciona \"...a solidariedade não se presume; isto é, resulta da lei ou a vontade das partes...\". Também, visando uma gestão compartilhada, a Lei Federal 9.433/1997 cita no artigo 1º \"... a bacia hidrográfica é uma unidade territorial para políticas recursos hídricos... (V)\", e \"... a gestão dos recursos hídricos deve ser descentralizada e contar com a participação do Poder Público, dos usuários e das comunidades \"(VI). Desta forma, emerge o princípio de hidrossolidariedade destes contextos pré-mencionados nos cenários de discussão nacional e internacional. Esta pesquisa avaliou as limitações e os alcances do conceito de hidrossolidariedade, por meio da participação da comunidade nos problemas de drenagem urbana, com foco na gestão de risco de inundações. Embora a hidrossolidariedade seja um conceito pouco conhecido no Brasil, esta pesquisa estudou a viabilidade deste conceito com os atores sociais interessados em diferentes escalas espaciais da drenagem urbana: tanto na escala de lote domiciliar como na escala da bacia hidrográfica. A metodologia avaliou incentivos para os usuários da comunidade que aceitaram as ferramentas de hidrossolidariedade frente a problemas ambientais na gestão de inundações urbanas. Essas atitudes buscaram estimular a solidariedade e a responsabilidade cidadã na dimensão espaço-temporal. Em uma bacia estudada, os usuários participaram da criação de uma associação legalmente constituída por meio da metodologia explicada nesta pesquisa: \"Associação Amigos da Bacia do Tijuco Preto.\" Utilizou-se como ferramenta confirmatória entrevistas pessoais com usuários de duas bacias hidrográficas, Tijuco Preto e Gregório; analisaram-se dúvidas e realimentações de informações para propor e planejar a tomada de decisões no gerenciamento de recursos hídricos. Esta gestão foi caracterizada como participativa, compartilhada, integrada e continuada. Resultados da pesquisa apontaram que as partes possuem interesse e disponibilidade para desenvolver e compartilhar seu conhecimento sobre gestão de risco de inundação, bem como o espírito participativo e de solidariedade, para aplicação em sua comunidade com a finalidade de melhoria ambiental e bem estar do ser humano. / Throughout the XXI century, a culture of solidarity within a river basin is based on legal aspects. In Brazil, it is legitimated by the Federal Constitution of 1988, article 225, caput, \"Everybody is entitled to a ecologically-balanced environment, as well of common using by the people and essential to a healthy life quality, being imposed to the Public Power and the collective society the duty to defend it and to preserve it for the presents and future generations\". In the article 3 states about the fundamental objectives of the Federal Republic of Brazil, where in the item I says \"to build a free, just and solidarity society.\" Still in this context, the Brazilian Civil Code, in the article 265 mentions \"... the solidarity it is not presumed by itself; it is the result by law or by the willingness of the parties....\" Also, seeking a shared management, the Federal Law 9.433/1997 mention in the article 1 \"... the river basin is a territorial unit for water policies... (V)\", and \"... water resources should be decentralized and to count with the participation of the Public Power, of the users and of the communities\" (VI). Thus, the \"hydrosolidarity\" emerged from those fore-mentioned contexts at national and international arena. This research assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the concept of hydrosolidarity, thereby analyzing an application to urban drainage with community participation. Although hydrosolidarity is a concept not well known in Brazil, this research studied the feasibility of this concept with stakeholder and at different scales, either at the domiciliary lot or at the whole river basin scale. The methodology evaluated incentives for the community\'s users that accepted the tools of hydrosolidarity front to environmental problems in the management of urban floods. Those attitudes promoted stimuli toward citizenship solidarity and responsibility at spatiotemporal dimensions. Urban river basin users participated through the statements of the bylaws of a river basin association officially constituted through this research: the \"Association Friends of Tijuco Preto River Basin\". Through personal interviews to uses from two urban river basins, Tijuco Preto and Gregório, some doubts and feedbacks were surveyed in order to propose planning and decisionmaking on water management featured as participative, integrated and continuous. Results of the research depicted that social stakeholders had interests and willingness to develop and share their knowledge on flood risk management as well their participative solidarity to be applied into the community looking forward to achieving a higher environment and human well-being.

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