This thesis deals with flow measuring techniques applied to steady and pulsating gas flows relevant to gas exchange systems for internal combustion engines. Gas flows in such environments are complex, i.e. they are inhomogeneous, three-dimensional, unsteady, non-isothermal and exhibit significant density changes. While a variety of flow metering devices are available and have been devised for such flow conditions, the performance of these flow metersis to a large extent undocumented when a strongly pulsatile motion is superposed on the already complex flow field. Nonetheless, gas flow meters are commonly applied in such environments, e.g. in the measurement of the air flow to the engine or the amount of exhaust gas recirculation. The aim of the present thesis is therefore to understand and assess, and if possible to improve the performance of various flow meters under highly pulsatile conditions as well as demonstrating the use of a new type of flow meter for measurements of the pulsating mass flow upstream and downstream the turbine of a turbocharger. The thesis can be subdivided into three parts. The first one assesses the flow quality of a newly developed flow rig, designed for measurements of steady and pulsating air flow at flow rates and pulse frequencies typically found in the gas exchange system of cars and smaller trucks. Flow rates and pulsation frequencies achieved and measured range up to about 200 g/s and 80 Hz, respectively. The time-resolved mass flux and stagnation temperature under both steady and pulsating conditions were characterized by means of a combined hot/cold-wire probe which is part of a newly developed automated measurement module. This rig and measurement module were used to create a unique data base with well-defined boundary conditions to be used for the validation of numerical simulations, but in particular, to assess the performance of various flow meters. In the second part a novel vortex flow meter that can measure the timedependent flow rate using wavelet analysis has been invented, verified and extensively tested under various industrially relevant conditions. The newly developed technique was used to provide unique turbine maps under pulsatile conditions through time-resolved and simultaneous measurements of mass flow, temperature and pressure upstream and downstream the turbine. Results confirm that the quasi-steady assumption is invalid for the turbine considered as a whole. In the third and last part of the thesis, two basic fundamental questions that arose during the course of hot/cold-wire measurements in the aforementioned high speed flows have been addressed, namely to assess which temperature a cold-wire measures or to which a hot-wire is exposed to in high speed flows as well as whether the hot-wire measures the product of velocity and density or total density. Hot/cold-wire measurements in a nozzle have been performed to test various hypothesis and results show that the recovery temperature as well as the product of velocity and stagnation density are measured. / QC 20120510

Thesis (MEng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This report deals with the use of Doppler meters to measure flow velocities and hence discharges in streams. The Doppler meter measures the shift in frequency of an acoustic wave, which it emits and then becomes reflected by a moving particle. The reading is converted into a velocity by dividing the shifted frequency by a calibration constant. The particles that reflect the signal need to follow the flow sufficiently closely so that their velocity may be assumed equal to the flow velocity. A previous study on the use of the Doppler meter at a Crump weir (Du Toit and Venter, 1999) indicated that velocities measured with a Doppler meter showed a distinct relationship with recorded water levels. However, the wide scatter of the observed frequencies in this study, necessitated further tests on the use of the Doppler meter at measuring structures as well as calibration tests on the instrument in the hydraulic laboratory of the University of Stellenbosch. The mam objective of this investigation was to establish the relationship between measured Doppler velocities at a Crump weir and the approach velocities in the stream. The instrument was to be tested in both modular and non-modular flow ranges. In addition, the instrument had to be calibrated in the hydraulic laboratory under varying flow conditions, such as very low flow velocities and different sediment concentrations. The placement of the probe at different depths of the flow was also investigated to comment on the accuracy of the Doppler readings at these depths. The results of these tests should serve as guidelines for any additional tests required for use of this instrument in open channel discharge measurements. The Doppler meter used for this study was supplied and manufactured in Stellenbosch by Flotron, and is being marketed as DFM-P-067. It was calibrated in the laboratory in a channel with limited width and hence non-two-dimensional flow conditions. Conclusions were drawn on the calibration constant that was established. The calibration of the instrument requires the division of the cross-sectional flow area into a number of sub-divisions over which the flow was integrated. The calibration constant of 1460 established in this study differs by approximately 6 percent from the theoretical constant value of 1375. The sensitivity of the Doppler meter to different sediment concentrations was also investigated. For the instrument to read a shifted frequency, it is essential that suspended particles that follow the water movement sufficiently closely are present in the stream. It was observed that readings of the instrument in "sediment-free" water differed only by 3.6% from the readings taken in water containing sediments. The instrument was thus not very sensitive to different sediment concentrations. It was also found that the angle at which the probe was placed in the water had no effect on the accuracy of the observed Doppler velocity. It was furthermore found that the Doppler meter worked reliably at all depths, including levels very close to the channel floor and levels just below the water surface. One drawback of the apparatus was the minimum velocity that it can measure accurately. This minimum velocity of 0.046 mis does not compare well with that for other commercially available Doppler meters. The Argonaut-Acoustic Doppler meter for example can measure velocities as low as O.OOOlm/s, meaning that the DFM-P-067 measures a minimum velocity 460 times swifter than the minimum velocity of the Argonaut-Acoustic Doppler meter. After the Doppler meter had been calibrated, it was tested at a Crump weir in the laboratory to determine the relationship between the Doppler velocities, measured at the weir's crest, and the velocities in the approach channel. These tests were performed for both modular and non-modular flow conditions. The report concludes that, within the flow range in which the instrument was tested, there is a linear relationship between the two velocities mentioned. It is likely that the results obtained in the modular flow range can be used to extrapolate for high flows, especially for submergence ratios less than 0.93. The wide scatter of results obtained in the previous study was due to the readings not being averaged. The Doppler meter does not measure a point velocity but an average velocity within the acoustic field that it emits. This acoustic field is very small and depends on the geometry of the probe. Finally it is recommended that the linear relationship in the non-modular flow range be investigated further in a larger model, where the submergence ratio can be better controlled. The Doppler meter should in future also be calibrated in a wide channel in which two-dimensional flow conditions are approached and these results should be compared to the results obtained in this study. Every instrument is expected to have its own calibration constant, and depending on its application, it can either be calibrated at a weir or in the laboratory. The calibration of the instrument at a Crump weir should allow for a wider range of flows, and also very low flow velocities. At the end of this report guidelines were drawn up that are based on the results and conclusions obtained in this investigation. They may serve as an aid for measurements that could be carried out with this instrument in open channels. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie verslag handeloor die gebruik van die Doppler-meter om vloeisnelhede en derhalwe die vloeitempos in riviere te meet. Die Doppler meter word gebruik om die verandering in die frekwensie van 'n akoustiese golf wat deur bewegende deeltjies in die water gereflekteer word te meet. Die lesing word dan omgeskakel in 'n snelheid deur die gewysigde frekwensie deur 'n kalibrasie konstante te deel. Die bewegende deeltjies wat die sein reflekteer, volg die vloei genoegsaam sodat aanvaar kan word dat hulle snelhede gelyk aan die vloeisnelheid is. 'n Vorige studie in die gebruik van die Doppler meter by 'n Crump meetwal het baie belowende resultate getoon deurdat daar gevind is dat die gemete Doppler snelheid 'n duidelike verwantskap toon met veranderings in gemete water vlakke. As gevolg van die wye band in die waargenome frekwensies in die studie is aanbeveel dat verdere toetse op die gebruik van die Doppler meter by meetstasies gedoen moet word. Die instrument moet ook in die laboratorium gekalibreer word. Die hoofdoel van hierdie ondersoek was om die verwantskap tussen die gemete Doppler snelhede by 'n Crump meetwal en die aankomssnelhede in die stroom te bepaal. Dit moes gedoen word in beide die modulêre en niemodulêre vloeibestekke. Behalwe vir die kalibrasie van die instrument in die laboratorium moes die betroubaarheid daarvan onder verskillende vloei toestande ook getoets word, soos byvoorbeeld by lae vloei snelhede en by verskillende sediment konsentrasies. Die instrument is ook op verskillende vlakke binne die vloei getoets om te bepaal of daar op hierdie vlakke betroubare lesings verwag kon word. Resultate verkry, kan dan dien as riglyne vir enige verdere toetse wat nog op die instrument in oop kanale uitgevoer moet word. Die Doppler meter wat vir die ondersoek gebruik is, word in Stellenbosch vervaardig deur Flotron en word onder die naam DFM-P-067 bemark. Dit is in die laboratorium in 'n kanaal met 'n beperkte breedte getoets en IS daarom in nie-twee dimensionele vloei gekalibreer. Gevolgtrekkings IS gebaseer op die kalibrasie konstante verkry uit die toetse. Die kalibrasie van die instrument vereis dat die deursnee area van die vloei in verskeie segmente onderverdeel moes word. Die kalibrasie konstante van 1460 bepaal in hierdie studie verskilongeveer 6% van die teoretiese waarde van 1375 vir die konstante. Die Doppler meter se sensitiwiteit vir verskillende sediment konsentrasies is ook ondersoek. Dit is noodsaaklik dat daar gesuspendeerde deeltjies teenwoordig in die water is en dat die deeltjies saam met die water beweeg om te verseker dat die instrument die gewysigde frekwensie kan registreer. Daar is egter gevind dat die lesings van die instrument in sediment-vrye water slegs met 3,6% verskil van lesings wat in water met sediment geneem is. Dit lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat die instrument nie baie sensitief vir veranderlike sediment konsentrasies in die water is nie. Daar is ook gevind dat die hoek waarteen die sender in die water geplaas word nie die akkuraatheid van die Doppler snelhede beinvloed nie. Verder is gevind dat die Doppler meter bevredigende resultate lewer, ongeag op watter diepte lesings geneem word. Tydens toetse is waarnemings baie nabyaan die kanaal bodem asook nabyaan die water se oppervlak gedoen. 'n Tekortkoming van hierdie instrument is die minimum snelheid wat dit akkuraat kan meet. Daar is gevind dat die Doppler meter se muurnum snelheid lesing van 0.046 mis nie goed vergelyk met dié van ander meters wat kommersieël beskikbaar is nie. Die Argonaut-Acoustic Doppler meter kan byvoorbeeld vloeisnelhede so laag as 0.0001 mis meet wat beteken dat die DFM-P-067 se minimum betroubare vloeisnelheid 460 keer vinniger is as die Argonaut-Acoustic Doppler meter se minimum betroubare vloeisnelheid. Nadat die Doppler meter gekalibreer is, is dit by 'n Crump meetwal in die laboratorium getoets om die verhouding tussen die Doppler snelhede gemeet by die oorloopkruin en die snelhede wat in die aanloopkanaal gemeet is, te bepaal. Hierdie toetse is uitgevoer op beide modulêre en nie-modulêre vloei toestande. Daar is gevind dat daar binne die vloeibestek waarin die toetse plaasgevind het 'n liniêere verband tussen die twee bogenoemde snelhede bestaan. Dit is hoogs waarskynlik dat die resultate wat in die modulêre vloeibestek gevind is gebruik kan word om vir hoë vloeie te ekstrapoleer, veral vir grade van versuiping laer as 0.93. Die vorige studie se uiteenlopende resultate kan toegeskryf word aan lesings waarvan die gemiddelde lesing vir 'n spesifieke vloeitoestand nie bepaal is nie. Die Doppler meter meet nie 'n bepaalde punt-snelheid nie, maar 'n gemiddelde snelheid binne die akoestiese veld wat dit uitstraal. Hierdie akoestiese veld is baie klein en afhanklik van die geometrie van die sender. Ten slotte word aanbeveel dat die lineêre verband in die nie-modulêre vloeibestek in 'n groter model, waar die graad van versuiping makliker beheerbaar is, verder ondersoek moet word. Die Doppler meter moet ook in 'n breë kanaal waarin twee dimensionale vloei voorkom, gekalibreer word. Resultate so verkry moet vergelyk word met die wat in hierdie studie behaal is. Elke instrument behoort sy eie kalibrasie konstante te hê en afhangende van waar dit gebruik word, kan dit of by 'n meetwal of in die laboratorium gekalibreer word. Die kalibrasie van die instrument by 'n Crump meetwal behoort 'n wyer reeks vloeie toe te laat met ook baie lae snelhede. Die verslag word afgesluit met riglyne gebaseer op die resultate en gevolgtrekkings wat uit die ondersoek voortgespruit het. Hierdie riglyne en gevolgtrekkings kan dan dien as 'n hulpmiddel vir metings wat met hierdie instrument in oop kanale uitgevoer word.

<p>The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the next large particle accelerator developed at CERN, constructed to enable studies of particles. The acceleration of the particles is carried out using magnets operating at about 1.9 K, a temperature achieved by regulating flow of superfluid helium. For economical reasons, control of the helium flow is based on feedback of virtual flow meter (VFT) estimates instead of real instrumentation.</p><p>The main purpose of this work is to develop a virtual flow meter with the possibility to estimate the flow by means of two different flow estimation methods; the Samson method that has previously been tested for the LHC, and the Sereg- Schlumberger method that has never before been implemented in this environment.</p><p>The virtual flow meters are implemented on PLCs using temperature and pressure measurements as input data, and a tool for generating the virtual flow meters and connect them to the appropriate physical instrumentation has also been developed.</p><p>The flow through a valve depends, among others, on some pressure and temperature dependent physical properties that are to be estimated with high accuracy. In this project, this is done by bilinear interpolation in twodimensional tables containing physical data, an approach that turned out to be more accurate than the previously used method with polynomial interpolation.</p><p>The flow measurement methods have been compared. Since they both derive from empirical studies rather than physical relations it is quite futile to find theoretical correspondencies, but the simulations of the mass flows can be compared. For low pressures, the results are fairly equal but they differ more for higher pressures. The methods have not been validated against true flow rates since there were no real measurements available before the end of this project.</p> / <p>Le Grand Collisionneur de Hadrons (Large Hadron Collider, LHC) est le prochain grand accélérateur de particules du CERN, construit pour permettre l’étude des particules. L’accélération des particules sera réalisée en utilisant des aimants supraconducteurs qui fonctionneront à 1.9 K et la température sera régulée en contrôlant le débit d’hélium superfluide. Pour des raisons économiques, la régulation du débit d’hélium sera basée sur les réponses des estimations des débitmètres</p><p>virtuels (Virtual flow meters, VFT) au lieu d’instrumentation réelle.</p><p>Le but principal de ce projet est de développer un débitmètre virtuel qui estimera le débit avec deux méthodes différentes ; la méthode Samson qui a déjà été mise en oeuvre pour le LHC, et la méthode Sereg-Schlumberger qui n’a pas encore été implémentée dans cet environnement.</p><p>Les débitmètres virtuels seront implémentés sur des PLCs avec des mesures de température et de pression comme données d’entrée. De plus, un outil pour générer les débitmètres et les relier avec l’instrumentation physique adéquat a été développé.</p><p>Le débit à travers d’une vanne dépend entre autres des propriétés physiques qui dépendent à leur tour de la température et de la pression. Ces propriétés devront être estimées avec une grande précision. Dans ce projet, cela est fait en appliquant une interpolation bilinéaire dans des tableaux de deux dimensions. Cette méthode s’est montrée plus précise qu’avec une méthode d’interpolation polynomiale.</p><p>Les deux méthodes de mesures de débit ont été comparées. Elles dérivent toutes les deux des études empiriques et non physiques, alors les similarités théoriques sont donc peu pertinentes, mais les résultats des simulations des débits peuvent être comparés. Pour des pressions basses, les méthodes sont quasiment équivalentes, mais les différences sont plus importantes pour les pressions plus hautes. Étant donné qu’il n’y avait pas de mesures disponibles avant la fin de ce projet, les méthodes n’ont pas été validées avec des débits réels.</p>

The response of slotted plate, Venturi meter and standard orifice to the presence of two phase, three phase and low differential flows was investigated. Two mixtures (air-water and air-oil) were used in the two-phase analysis while a mixture of air, water and oil was employed in the three-phase case. Due to the high gas void fraction (α>0.9), the mixture was considered wet gas. A slotted plate was utilized in the low differential pressure analysis and the discharge coefficient behavior was analyzed. Assuming homogeneous flow, an equation with two unknowns was obtained for the multi-phase flow analysis. An empirical relation and the differential response of the meters were used to estimate the variables involved in the equation. Good performance in the gas mass flow rate estimation was exhibited by the slotted and standard plates for the air-water flow, while poor results were obtained for the air-oil and air-water oil flows. The performance of all the flow meter tested in the analysis improved for differential pressures greater than 24.9 kPa (100 in_H2O). Due to the tendency to a zero value for the liquid flow, the error of the estimation reached values of more than 500% at high qualities and low differential pressures. Air-oil and air-water-oil flows show that liquid viscosity influences the response of the differential pressure meters. The best results for high liquid viscosity were obtained in the Venturi meter using the recovery pressure for the gas flow estimation at differential pressures greater than 24.9 kPa (100 in_H2O). A constant coefficient Cd was used for the low differential pressure analysis and results did show that for differential pressure less than 1.24 kPa (5 inH2O) density changes are less than 1% making possible the incompressible flow assumption. The average of the computed coefficients is the value of Cd.

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the next large particle accelerator developed at CERN, constructed to enable studies of particles. The acceleration of the particles is carried out using magnets operating at about 1.9 K, a temperature achieved by regulating flow of superfluid helium. For economical reasons, control of the helium flow is based on feedback of virtual flow meter (VFT) estimates instead of real instrumentation. The main purpose of this work is to develop a virtual flow meter with the possibility to estimate the flow by means of two different flow estimation methods; the Samson method that has previously been tested for the LHC, and the Sereg- Schlumberger method that has never before been implemented in this environment. The virtual flow meters are implemented on PLCs using temperature and pressure measurements as input data, and a tool for generating the virtual flow meters and connect them to the appropriate physical instrumentation has also been developed. The flow through a valve depends, among others, on some pressure and temperature dependent physical properties that are to be estimated with high accuracy. In this project, this is done by bilinear interpolation in twodimensional tables containing physical data, an approach that turned out to be more accurate than the previously used method with polynomial interpolation. The flow measurement methods have been compared. Since they both derive from empirical studies rather than physical relations it is quite futile to find theoretical correspondencies, but the simulations of the mass flows can be compared. For low pressures, the results are fairly equal but they differ more for higher pressures. The methods have not been validated against true flow rates since there were no real measurements available before the end of this project. / Le Grand Collisionneur de Hadrons (Large Hadron Collider, LHC) est le prochain grand accélérateur de particules du CERN, construit pour permettre l’étude des particules. L’accélération des particules sera réalisée en utilisant des aimants supraconducteurs qui fonctionneront à 1.9 K et la température sera régulée en contrôlant le débit d’hélium superfluide. Pour des raisons économiques, la régulation du débit d’hélium sera basée sur les réponses des estimations des débitmètres virtuels (Virtual flow meters, VFT) au lieu d’instrumentation réelle. Le but principal de ce projet est de développer un débitmètre virtuel qui estimera le débit avec deux méthodes différentes ; la méthode Samson qui a déjà été mise en oeuvre pour le LHC, et la méthode Sereg-Schlumberger qui n’a pas encore été implémentée dans cet environnement. Les débitmètres virtuels seront implémentés sur des PLCs avec des mesures de température et de pression comme données d’entrée. De plus, un outil pour générer les débitmètres et les relier avec l’instrumentation physique adéquat a été développé. Le débit à travers d’une vanne dépend entre autres des propriétés physiques qui dépendent à leur tour de la température et de la pression. Ces propriétés devront être estimées avec une grande précision. Dans ce projet, cela est fait en appliquant une interpolation bilinéaire dans des tableaux de deux dimensions. Cette méthode s’est montrée plus précise qu’avec une méthode d’interpolation polynomiale. Les deux méthodes de mesures de débit ont été comparées. Elles dérivent toutes les deux des études empiriques et non physiques, alors les similarités théoriques sont donc peu pertinentes, mais les résultats des simulations des débits peuvent être comparés. Pour des pressions basses, les méthodes sont quasiment équivalentes, mais les différences sont plus importantes pour les pressions plus hautes. Étant donné qu’il n’y avait pas de mesures disponibles avant la fin de ce projet, les méthodes n’ont pas été validées avec des débits réels.

The response of slotted plate, Venturi meter and standard orifice to the presence of two phase, three phase and low differential flows was investigated. Two mixtures (air-water and air-oil) were used in the two-phase analysis while a mixture of air, water and oil was employed in the three-phase case. Due to the high gas void fraction (&#945;>0.9), the mixture was considered wet gas. A slotted plate was utilized in the low differential pressure analysis and the discharge coefficient behavior was analyzed. Assuming homogeneous flow, an equation with two unknowns was obtained for the multi-phase flow analysis. An empirical relation and the differential response of the meters were used to estimate the variables involved in the equation. Good performance in the gas mass flow rate estimation was exhibited by the slotted and standard plates for the air-water flow, while poor results were obtained for the air-oil and air-water oil flows. The performance of all the flow meter tested in the analysis improved for differential pressures greater than 24.9 kPa (100 in_H2O). Due to the tendency to a zero value for the liquid flow, the error of the estimation reached values of more than 500% at high qualities and low differential pressures. Air-oil and air-water-oil flows show that liquid viscosity influences the response of the differential pressure meters. The best results for high liquid viscosity were obtained in the Venturi meter using the recovery pressure for the gas flow estimation at differential pressures greater than 24.9 kPa (100 in_H2O). A constant coefficient Cd was used for the low differential pressure analysis and results did show that for differential pressure less than 1.24 kPa (5 inH2O) density changes are less than 1% making possible the incompressible flow assumption. The average of the computed coefficients is the value of Cd.

Neste trabalho foi inferida a vazão de um fluido que escoava em um tubo de cobre através do uso da termometria em diferentes regimes de escoamento, com o uso de sensores óticos de temperatura baseados em redes de Bragg escritas em fibras óticas (FBG). Foi utilizado um processo de medição não-intrusivo de vazão através do uso da termometria o qual consiste no monitoramento da temperatura em dois pontos fixos, com uma distância conhecida (d), na parede externa do tubo. Além dos sensores óticos de temperatura foram utilizados sensores comerciais de temperatura, termopares, com a intenção de comparar os resultados obtidos experimentalmente. No experimento o fluido estará escoando com uma temperatura T1, e em determinado tempo será liberado um pequeno volume de fluido com temperatura T2, onde T2 > T1, simulando um pulso térmico. É monitorada a evolução temporal do pulso térmico e anotado o tempo de trânsito (t) entre os dois sensores de temperatura. Com o valor da distância (d) e o tempo de trânsito (t) obtemos a velocidade média de escoamento (v). De posse da (v) e área de seção transversal do tubo (A) podemos inferir a vazão. A técnica de medição não-intrusiva de vazão através do uso da termometria foi testada para diferentes regimes de escoamento: laminar, transição e turbulento. Foram comparados os valores medidos da vazão mássica do sistema com os valores obtidos experimentalmente para os sensores comerciais e redes de Bragg. Para o regime turbulento a exatidão de medição da velocidade de escoamento do fluido foi de 0,75 para os sensores óticos e 0,60 para os sensores comerciais. No caso do regime de transição a exatidão na medida foi de 0,90 para o sensor ótico e 0,69 para os sensores comerciais. Finalmente para o regime laminar a exatidão nas medidas foram [sic] de 0,98 para os sensores ótico [sic] e 0,76 para os sensores comerciais. / In this work we inferred a fluid flow seeping from a cooper pipe through thermometers scheme in different flows, through the use of optical sensors based on temperature Bragg Gratings written in optical fiber (FBG). We used a non-intruse measurement process through the use of thermometry, which consists of monitoring the temperature at two fixed points with a know distance (d) on the outer wall of the tube. Besides the optical sensors of temperature, sensors were used for commercial temperature, thermocouples, with the objective of comparing the results obtained experimentally. In the experiment, the fluid is flowing at a temperature T1, and will be released at any given time a small volume of fluid with temperature T2, were T2 > T1, simulating a thermal pulse. It's monitored the evolution of the thermal pulse and noted the transit time (t) between the two temperature sensors. With the value of distance (d) and transit time (t) we obtain the average velocity of flow (v). Tenure velocity (v) and the tube transversal sectional area (A) we can infer the non-intrusive measurement technique flow. The flow though the use of thermometry was tested for different flow regimes: laminar, transitional and turbulent. We compared the values measured with the mass flow of the system with the experimental values for the sensors and commercial FBG's. In the turbulent the accuracy of measuring the speed and fluid flow was 0.75 to 0.60 optical sensors and sensor for commercial purposes. Finally for the laminar accuracy in the measurements were 0.98 optical sensors and 0.76 for commercial sensors.

Neste trabalho foi inferida a vazão de um fluido que escoava em um tubo de cobre através do uso da termometria em diferentes regimes de escoamento, com o uso de sensores óticos de temperatura baseados em redes de Bragg escritas em fibras óticas (FBG). Foi utilizado um processo de medição não-intrusivo de vazão através do uso da termometria o qual consiste no monitoramento da temperatura em dois pontos fixos, com uma distância conhecida (d), na parede externa do tubo. Além dos sensores óticos de temperatura foram utilizados sensores comerciais de temperatura, termopares, com a intenção de comparar os resultados obtidos experimentalmente. No experimento o fluido estará escoando com uma temperatura T1, e em determinado tempo será liberado um pequeno volume de fluido com temperatura T2, onde T2 > T1, simulando um pulso térmico. É monitorada a evolução temporal do pulso térmico e anotado o tempo de trânsito (t) entre os dois sensores de temperatura. Com o valor da distância (d) e o tempo de trânsito (t) obtemos a velocidade média de escoamento (v). De posse da (v) e área de seção transversal do tubo (A) podemos inferir a vazão. A técnica de medição não-intrusiva de vazão através do uso da termometria foi testada para diferentes regimes de escoamento: laminar, transição e turbulento. Foram comparados os valores medidos da vazão mássica do sistema com os valores obtidos experimentalmente para os sensores comerciais e redes de Bragg. Para o regime turbulento a exatidão de medição da velocidade de escoamento do fluido foi de 0,75 para os sensores óticos e 0,60 para os sensores comerciais. No caso do regime de transição a exatidão na medida foi de 0,90 para o sensor ótico e 0,69 para os sensores comerciais. Finalmente para o regime laminar a exatidão nas medidas foram [sic] de 0,98 para os sensores ótico [sic] e 0,76 para os sensores comerciais. / In this work we inferred a fluid flow seeping from a cooper pipe through thermometers scheme in different flows, through the use of optical sensors based on temperature Bragg Gratings written in optical fiber (FBG). We used a non-intruse measurement process through the use of thermometry, which consists of monitoring the temperature at two fixed points with a know distance (d) on the outer wall of the tube. Besides the optical sensors of temperature, sensors were used for commercial temperature, thermocouples, with the objective of comparing the results obtained experimentally. In the experiment, the fluid is flowing at a temperature T1, and will be released at any given time a small volume of fluid with temperature T2, were T2 > T1, simulating a thermal pulse. It's monitored the evolution of the thermal pulse and noted the transit time (t) between the two temperature sensors. With the value of distance (d) and transit time (t) we obtain the average velocity of flow (v). Tenure velocity (v) and the tube transversal sectional area (A) we can infer the non-intrusive measurement technique flow. The flow though the use of thermometry was tested for different flow regimes: laminar, transitional and turbulent. We compared the values measured with the mass flow of the system with the experimental values for the sensors and commercial FBG's. In the turbulent the accuracy of measuring the speed and fluid flow was 0.75 to 0.60 optical sensors and sensor for commercial purposes. Finally for the laminar accuracy in the measurements were 0.98 optical sensors and 0.76 for commercial sensors.

No description available.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / In this work we have designed and simulated a thermal bi-directional integrated circuit mass flow sensor. The approach used here was an extension to the gas flow model given by Mayer and Lechner. The design features high precision response received from analog integrated circuits. A computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was designed for simulations with air and water Using COMSOL Multiphysics. Established mathematical models for the heat flow equations including CFD parameters were used within COMSOL simulation(COMSOL Multiphysics, Sweden). Heat pulses of 55 °C for a period of nearly 120 seconds and 50% duty cycles were applied as thermal sources to the flowstream. The boundary conditions of the heat equations at the solid (heating element) fluid interface were set up in the software for the thermal response. The hardware design included one heating element and two sensing elements to detect the bi-directional mass flow. Platinum sensors were used due to their linear characteristics within 0 ºC to 100 ºC range, and their high temperature coefficient(0.00385 Ω/Ω/ºC). Polyimide thinfilm heater was used as the heating element due to its high throughput and good thermal efficiency. Two bridge circuits were used to sense the temperature distribution in the vicinity of the sensing elements. Three high precision instrumentation low power amplifiers with offset voltage ~2.5μV (50μV max) were used for bridge signal amplification and the difference circuit. The difference circuit was used to indicate the flow direction. A LM555 timer chip was utilized to provide the heat pulse period. Simulation and experimental measurements for heat pulses with different amplitude (temperature) were in good agreement. Also, the sensitivity of the flow sensor was observed to remain unaffected with the change in the duty cycle of the heat operation mode.