Decreased food security is a major issue which influences numerous individuals in developing countries such as South Africa. Literature suggests that although detailed information is not available about the exact amount of food insecure households in South Africa, food insecurity does exist. Multiple factors influence decreased food security and households in informal settlements often portray high risks to decreased food security due to a lack of adequate resources to ensure sustainable food security. However, to the authors‟ knowledge limited information is available regarding the specific state of household food security in informal settlements in South Africa. Information regarding the influences various factors have on food security in an informal settlement is also limited. Therefore this study aimed to explore household food security in an informal settlement including the factors that could possibly contribute to food insecurity. According to literature, the pillars of food security consist of food availability, accessibility and utilisation and can contribute to a decrease in household food security or the enhancement thereof. In addition, socio-demographical factors such as income, household size and level of education can influence household food security. Based on this information, the pillars of food security and socio-demographical aspects of a household were used as possible factors that influence food security and were included as part of the theoretical framework. Utilisation as part of the food security pillars was closely explored to determine if the knowledge and suggested implementation thereof was effective and contributing to household food security. The influence of knowledge of basic food related aspects on food security were therefore determined in this, combined with the relationships between various socio-demographics and food security. Furthermore, through these findings recommendations were made on how food security can be enhanced in the households of the identified informal settlement. A quantitative research approach was used in this study. As part of non-probability sampling interviewer administered questionnaires were presented to 103 respondents at Nutrifeeds production and distribution facility in the Viljoenskroon area. Existing questionnaires and surveys relevant to this study subject were consulted to develop the questionnaire which explored demographics, food production and knowledge of food handling, utilisation, storage practices, and food security. All questionnaires were completed and the data was analysed by Statistical Consultation Services at the North-West University, Potchefstroom, using the Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS). The results indicated that the majority of respondents possessed knowledge regarding food handling practices. Knowledge of food related aspects were indicated to be implemented accordingly, by most respondents with regard to food utilisation (preparation, hygiene and storage). It was determined that the more than two thirds of the respondents and their households were at risk of food insecurity or food insecure suggesting that a need exists for food insecurity to be addressed in this informal settlement. According to the results that were obtained in this study, food insecurity in the Viljoenskroon area, Rammulotsi informal settlement can be acknowledged. Additionally, the findings enabled the researcher to make recommendations to local businesses, clinics and local authorities regarding the enhancement of household food security in the area. The recommendations include the enhancement of knowledge regarding food related aspects, food production opportunities, food access and utilisation in the community as a means to improve the status of household food security in this informal settlement. / M Consumer Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Master of Arts / Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work / Spencer D. Wood / It is the intention of this thesis to come to a better understanding of the factors that lead to food insecurity, a concept for understanding if people have enough food to eat. The tool for household measurement was developed by the United States Department of Agriculture, and is the backbone of the Food Security Supplement, which is conducted annually as part of the Current Population Survey. Three literature are reviewed: concentration of markets, civic agriculture and localism, and food security and nutrition. Each approaches understanding food security from a different angle offering insights along with its shortcomings. Most US studies consider food insecurity as a contributing component of poor health. In this study, I ask instead, "What are the major predictors of household food insecurity?" Using data from the Food Security Supplement of the Current Population Survey from 2000 to 2007, I use descriptive statistics and logistic regression to investigate the causes of food insecurity. I show that as currently measured food insecurity is largely a function of economic inequalities. Within this broad finding, however, I also show that households in a principal city and nonmetropolitan counties are not more likely than other households to experience food insecurity even when controlling for economic and sociodemographic variables.

Published Article / The persistently negative state of food security worldwide has worsened the already compromised nutritional status of marginalised communities in Lesotho, thus highlighting the need to rethink current policies and strategies. This paper aims to reflect on the implementation and management of the food security strategies that have been adopted by the Lesotho government since 2004 in an effort to improve and sustain food security in the country. A questionnaire survey was conducted amongst senior government officials working in different ministries tasked with the implementation and management of the government's food security strategies. The survey revealed the lack of a sound knowledge base, proper co-ordination and a communication mechanism amongst different stakeholders, as well as poor commitment of most staff towards the implementation and management of the food security strategies. It thus appears that although food security strategies have been adopted by the government of Lesotho, the implementation and management thereof is ineffective.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Nigeria, like many African countries is caught up in the uncertainty of the effectiveness of agricultural intervention in achieving food security, poverty reduction and improved quality of life. This ambiguity is more pronounced especially in rural areas where majority of the poor and those involved in agriculture reside. Indeed, issues relating to resource utilization and productivity in the agricultural sector and how they affect livelihoods and food security of smallholder households remain underexplored. The study examines the contribution of small-scale irrigation agriculture towards ensuring food security and poverty alleviation among smallholder households. It assesses the productivity, food security and livelihoods status of smallholder households in the Middle Rima Valley Irrigation Project, North West Nigeria, the relationship that exist between the phenomena, as well as factors influencing them. It also explores smallholder households’ differentials on the basis of their efficiency, food security and income status, and what other factors determine the smallholder typologies. The research was situated within three bodies of theoretical work; political ecology, political economy of food and agriculture, and sustainable livelihoods. This was done with a view to providing a nuanced understanding of both the micro and macro processes and factors influencing agricultural production, food security and livelihoods of smallholder households. A concurrent triangulation mixed methods research design was adopted for the study. This involves the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods of research to drive the research agenda. Systematic random sampling technique was used to collect data for the quantitative aspect and purposive sampling was used to select participants for semi-structured interviews for the qualitative research. A total of 370 questionnaires were administered but 306 questionnaires were successfully completed and returned, representing an 83% response rate. Also eight respondents were interviewed for the study. While thematic content analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data, quantitative data was analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics.

Magister Artium - MA / This study is situated in the context of multidisciplinary discourse on the pervasive problem of food insecurity in the southern African context. More specifically, it is situated in the context of the Centre of Excellence in Food Security, located at the University of the Western Cape and its project on “Food Ethics and Values” (with Prof Ernst Conradie as principal investigator). It will contribute to discourse on food security from the perspective of the discipline of religious studies and more specifically African Traditional Religion (ATR) and the indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) associated with that. The consumption of food naturally plays a significant role in African Traditional Religion – as is evident from various taboos on food consumption, rituals with prescriptions on food, calendar-based festivities, but also from daily life in rural villages. In reflecting on food in such rural villages, the focus is often on the consumption of meat (chicken, goats, cattle, but also rodents and other wildlife) and of grains like maize. However, vegetables traditionally also formed part of a family’s daily diet. In pre-colonial times, such vegetables were not necessarily cultivated since some indigenous vegetables were harvested based on indigenous knowledge available amongst village elders and traditional healers. The Chionekano-ward includes some 42 villages with an estimated population of around 1020 persons. Through a process of snowball sampling, semi-structured interviews were conducted with village elders and traditional healers who have knowledge of such indigenous vegetables. Where appropriate interviews were followed up with focus groups discussions in particular villages. This study investigated the cultural and religious connotations attached to specified indigenous vegetable types in the Chionekano-ward of the Zvishavane-district in Zimbabwe. This study has identified fifteen edible indigenous vegetables. Only eleven indigenous vegetables were among the commonly used. These were classified into three groups. Firstly, there are indigenous vegetables found in the farming lands as weeds. These are Nyovhi/ Spider plant/ Cleome gynandra, Mbuya Mbuya/ Thorny pigweed/ Amaranthus spinosus, Derere/ Wild jute/ Corchorus tridens, Tsine/ Muhlabangubo/ Black jack/ Bidens spinosa, Muchacha/ Wild gherkin/ Cucumis anguria. Secondly there were Indigenous vegetables that use leaves as by-products namely, Muboora/Pumpkin squash/ Cucurbita maxima, Munyemba/ Cowpea leaves/ Vigna unguilata. Thirdly there were commonly used Wild indigenous vegetables found in riverbanks, forests and mountains namely Chirevereve, mubvunzandadya, Fat hen/ Chenopodium album and Nhuri. There were religious and cultural connotations attached to the use of these indigenous vegetables. The study found that there are common shared beliefs on the harvesting, cooking and consumption of these vegetables. These commonly shared beliefs and predominant perceptions on the consumption of indigenous vegetables were mainly shaped by the cultural and traditional religious beliefs systems shared by all the participants. Although the study was of a descriptive nature, it advocated for the preservation of such indigenous knowledge in order to promote avenues towards food security where commercial agriculture may be unable to ensure an equitable distribution of food.

Magister Artium - MA / This study is situated in the context of multidisciplinary discourse on the pervasive problem of food insecurity in the southern African context. More specifically, it is situated in the context of the Centre of Excellence in Food Security, located at the University of the Western Cape and its project on “Food Ethics and Values” (with Prof Ernst Conradie as principal investigator). It will contribute to discourse on food security from the perspective of the discipline of religious studies and more specifically African Traditional Religion (ATR) and the indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) associated with that. The consumption of food naturally plays a significant role in African Traditional Religion – as is evident from various taboos on food consumption, rituals with prescriptions on food, calendar-based festivities, but also from daily life in rural villages. In reflecting on food in such rural villages, the focus is often on the consumption of meat (chicken, goats, cattle, but also rodents and other wildlife) and of grains like maize. However, vegetables traditionally also formed part of a family’s daily diet. In pre-colonial times, such vegetables were not necessarily cultivated since some indigenous vegetables were harvested based on indigenous knowledge available amongst village elders and traditional healers. The Chionekano-ward includes some 42 villages with an estimated population of around 1020 persons. Through a process of snowball sampling, semi-structured interviews were conducted with village elders and traditional healers who have knowledge of such indigenous vegetables. Where appropriate interviews were followed up with focus groups discussions in particular villages.

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This thesis aimed to explore gaps in existing knowledge and identify new avenues to illuminate the connections between agriculture, nutrition and environmental health. Three separate, but complimentary, studies were designed to achieve this. The findings were then used to develop a model multisector intervention approach to improve food security, nutrition, the household environment and health outcomes in low and middle-income countries (LMIC), using Nepal as a case study. This research adopted a mixed-methods sequential explanatory approach. Initially, peer reviewed journal articles were reviewed to identify the type, extent and effectiveness of household interventions to improve food security, health and the household environment in LMIC. The barriers and facilitators to the development and delivery of multisector interventions in LMIC were assessed based on the qualitative synthesis of academic journal articles and existing grey literature. Additionally, a workshop-based qualitative case study was completed to understand Nepalese stakeholders' perceptions on development and implementation of a multisector intervention. It is clear that very little trans-disciplinary research has been done with the majority of studies still being discipline specific. It also appears that certain LMIC seem to focus on domain specific interventions. Those interventions that incorporated multiple domains such as; home gardening with nutrition education; nutrition intervention with water, sanitation and hygiene; appear to be more successful in terms of providing multiple benefits. Qualitative synthesis highlighted common barriers including co-ordination issues, access to the resources, inadequate technical capacity and limited shared understanding of multidisciplinary working among sectorial stakeholders. While facilitators included collaborative networking opportunities such as discipline discourse, webinars and funding to ensure sustainability of interventions. In addition, the Nepalese case study identified gaps in terms of knowledge generation and sharing between and within sectors. Finally, findings were synthesised to develop an evidence-based model approach multisector intervention to address multifaceted public health issues in LMIC.

Magister Philosophiae (Land and Agrarian Studies) - MPhil(LAS) / This thesis presents findings from ethnographic research conducted over a period of 17 months in the Blouberg and Molemole local municipalities of Capricorn District in Limpopo province with the aim of exploring mobility patterns of Zimbabwean migrants into, within and out of the South African farm labour market, and understanding how these movements are linked to access to food and other livelihood opportunities. Limpopo serves both as a transit province for Zimbabweans who wish to proceed further south to other provinces of South Africa and a destination for irregular migrants who live and work on white-owned commercial farms. Although constrained mobility, which results from their illegality and remoteness of farms from public services, limit their access to sources of food, irregular Zimbabwean migrants in Blouberg-Molemole area perceive that moving into South African farm labour has improved their food security and livelihood statuses. The South Africa farm labour market provides opportunities to earn income, and enables them to make long term investments in their families back home above immediate individual food security needs. Horizontal and vertical social networks established among Zimbabwean migrants in the Blouberg-Molemole area do not only serve the purpose of facilitating information sharing, but are also forms of social capital on which individual members depend on for their food security and livelihood needs.

Household food insecurity, defined as "the inability to acquire or consume an adequate diet quality or sufficient quantity of food in socially acceptable ways, or the uncertainty that one will be able to do so”, affected almost one in ten Canadian households in 2004. Responses have been dominated by community-based food initiatives with little attention paid to potential policy directions to alleviate this problem. The lack of impetus for policy responses may stem from the paucity of evidence documenting the nutrition implications of household food insecurity. Further, the development of policy interventions is hindered by a lack of understanding of the factors that influence vulnerability to food insecurity. This thesis comprises three studies aimed at providing stimulus and directions for policy responses to household food insecurity in Canada. The first study, an analysis of data from the 2004 Canadian Community Health Survey, documents poorer dietary intakes and heightened risk of nutrient inadequacies among adults and adolescents in food-insecure households, providing evidence of the public health implications and public policy relevance of household food insecurity. The second and third studies are examinations of household-level factors associated with vulnerability to household food insecurity. Analysis of data from the 2001 Survey of Household Spending demonstrates the relevance of housing costs to household food access. Among lower-income households, as the proportion of income allocated to housing costs increased, the adequacy of household food spending declined significantly. Receipt of a housing subsidy was associated with an improvement in food spending but mean food spending adequacy fell below the cost of a basic nutritious diet even among subsidized households. The final study comprises a cross-sectional survey of 464 low-income Toronto families, two-thirds of whom were food insecure over the preceding 12 months. Analysis of predictors of severe food insecurity highlights the centrality of income and housing costs and raises serious questions about current definitions of housing affordability and the adequacy of current housing subsidy levels. This work provides a public health imperative for action and points to the urgent need for social policy reform to ameliorate problems of household food insecurity in Canada.