Zambia is one of the Southern African countries that experienced drought between 2001 and 2003. As a result the country had low levels of maize harvest, which is the country's main staple food. The Zambian population depends on maize for both household food security and cash. For this reason the Government of Zambia appealed for help from the international community in order to meet the shortfall of maize with a view to feeding its starving population, particularly in the rural areas. In response to the government's appeal, World Food Programme, (WFP) a United Nations Food agency brought assistance in the form of 27,000 tonnes of genetically modified (GM) maize into the country in July 2002. The Zambian government, however, rejected GM maize in both grain and milled forms, citing health, environmental and trade concerns with the European Union. Thus the focus of the research was to understand, on one hand the government's action of rejecting GM maize as food aid, while on the other hand accepting that drought-stricken small-scale farmers would go hungry as a result of this decision. Understanding the perceptions of government action was therefore essential to understanding the situation the situation fully. In other words, was it a good scientifically based government decision, or was it one made for political gain? Moreover, the purpose of this research was to present arguments about the safety and benefits of Genetic Modification technology for the world, particularly the developing countries. The findings of the study were that the levels of GM technology awareness in Zambia low among technocrats and too low among the rest of the population. To this end, government officials, relevant NGOs and small scale farmers were interviewed. In addition, small scale farmers in Chongwe and Magoye participated in focus group discussions. The findings were that although the Chongwe community experienced drought in their area, they were of the view that the government was justified in rejecting the GM maize from 2001-12 because they did not want to contaminate their land which they regarded as very suitable for farming. On the contrary, the Magoye people were among the communities that had been anxious to get food and were therefore not happy with the government's decision. The hunger suffered at the time in this community caused them to loot the government stores of GM Maize (provided as food aid) before the government could recall the stocks. The issue of access to the GM maize was apparently more important than debating on the potential impacts that might have occurred to their community. Other findings were the Zambian government's decision to reject GM maize (as food aid) impacted negatively, both economically and socially, in these areas. The majority of small-scale farmers experienced food shortages and resorted to various coping strategies such as picking wild-fruits and roots in the bush in order for them to survive. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

My dissertation research examined the effect of the cultivation of insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize on the soil environment with a goal of understanding how to obtain a balance between technological advancement and maintenance of a healthy soil ecosystem. Although Bt plants may help to reduce pesticide use, conferring benefits to farm workers and the environment, there are still unresolved questions about how the cultivation of Bt plants affects soil organisms. For this dissertation project, I used 14 different genotypes of Bt maize and non-Bt maize (Zea mays) to investigate the effects of transgenic Bt plants on the colonization ability, abundance, and diversity of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in the soil ecosystem over time. My greenhouse studies demonstrated that Bt maize plants exhibited reduced AMF colonization across multiple Bt genotypes and that effects were most pronounced when fertilizer levels were limited and spore density was high. In addition, I found that although differences in AMF colonization between Bt and non-Bt maize were difficult to detect in the field, spore density was reduced in Bt field plots after just one growing season. When I tested the effect of plot history on AMF and plant growth, I found that Bt and non-Bt maize plants had higher leaf chlorophyll content when grown in plots previously cultivated with the same maize line as the previous year, indicative of a positive feedback effect. I also examined potential mechanisms contributing to the reduced AMF colonization observed in Bt maize in greenhouse studies and determined that follow-up experiments should continue to investigate differences in root apoplastic invertase activity and root permeability in Bt and non-Bt maize. Future investigations would also benefit from examining potential differences in root exudate profiles and volatile organic compounds between Bt and non-Bt cultivars. Taken together, my dissertation results suggest that, while difficult to detect in the field, reductions in AMF colonization in Bt maize roots may be ecologically significant as they could lead to a decrease in the abundance of AMF propagules in the soil over time, potentially impacting soil structure and function in areas where Bt crop cultivation is high.

Food borne illnesses continues to be a public health challenge in the United States (U.S.); an estimated 9.4 million incident cases occurred in 2011. In view of this challenge we conducted two food safety studies; 1) related to product formulation (hummus spoilage challenge study) and 2) evaluating the microbial safety of domestic kitchen surfaces in Residential Child Care Institutions (RCCI pilot study). Hummus is of Mediterranean origin but is currently eaten globally. This challenge study evaluates a variety of industrial hummus formulations (four in total, differing in pH and/or addition of a preservative (natamycin). Two batches were setup: batch 1; aseptically inoculated hummus with 100 CFU/g fungal isolates and batch 2; uninoculated hummus. Samples of both hummus batches were stored at both 20oC (10 days accelerated testing) and 4oC (84 days recommended temperature testing). Inoculated samples were analyzed for fungus, whiles both fungi and bacteria (standard plate count (SPC) and Lactococci) counts were done for uninoculated samples. Results indicate that accelerated testing inaccurately predicts fungal growth at 4oC in hummus, also fungal growth inhibition requires a pH ≤ 4.0 ± 0.2 and refrigeration. Limited studies have specifically evaluated the prevalence of pathogenic bacteria in domestic kitchens in the U.S, for this reason we assessed the microbial safety of 6 RCCI locations in MA. Fifteen key food contact surfaces and dish washing sponges, if available at each RCCI facility were assessed for SPC, yeast and molds, total coliform and E. coli, Listeria sp and Salmonella sp. Microbiological assessments were conducted preceding and after a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) food safety training and implementation at each location. Microbial growth varied by surface for each type of microorganism, wet surfaces had higher most probable number (MPN) counts. Compared to dry surfaces, wet surfaces had significantly higher mean total coliform counts. For both E. coli and total coliform, microbial load differed significantly by surfaces sampled (P = 0.0323 and 0.014) respectively. The surface and training interaction effect was highly significant for only E. coli (P = 0.0089). Training overall had no significant effect on reducing the microbial load on kitchen surfaces.

Text in English / South Africa is one of the biggest producers of genetically modified crops in the world. However, recent studies in South Africa show a low public willingness to consume genetically modified crops and accept modern agricultural biotechnology. The study analysed public perception towards consuming genetically modified crops and the acceptance of modern agricultural biotechnology in South Africa. 220 participants (N = 220) were sampled from the city of Kempton Park and the Chi-square formula was used to determine how well the sample represented the population under study. Data was collected using a 7-point Likert scale questionnaire designed following the guidelines for developing a theory of planned behaviour questionnaire in Ajzen (1991, 2001). Data analyses were carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The Cronbach’s alpha and Exploratory Factor Analysis were both used to determine the internal consistency and validity of the questionnaire. Correlations, independent sample t-tests, ANOVA, linear regression, and path analysis were also conducted. Findings of the study confirmed that there is low public willingness to consume genetically modified crops and to accept modern agricultural biotechnology in South Africa. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)