Thesis (MScFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Kiaat trees in Namibia are threatened by unsustainable harvesting practice. This study’s aim was to estimate the total value of an average Kiaat tree selected for harvesting with a focus on current timber use value, value of an optimally utilised tree, carbon value, and alternative uses of Kiaat trees. To accomplish this aim, the following specific objectives were set: (1) to estimate the total tree volume and optimum utilisable timber volume of an average Kiaat tree; (2) to estimate the amount and value of carbon stored in the above-ground parts of an average Kiaat tree; (3) to determine timber utilisation levels; and (4) to identify alternative use options to reduce timber losses of Kiaat trees. Previous studies on Kiaat in Namibia and elsewhere focused on growth, development and socio-economical aspects of Kiaat trees. A combination of a socio-economic survey and tree volumes and biomass determination was used to collect data. The survey entailed Kiaat products assessment and face-to-face personal interviews with known key-informants in and around Rundu. Loggers with permits to harvest Kiaat trees were asked to harvest 40 Kiaat trees and data collected from each tree before and after felling included: lower-stem diameter, diameter at breast height (DBH), upper-stem diameter, stem length, stump height, recovered merchantable logs lengths and lower-and-upper diameters and lengths of branches greater than 10 cm in diameter. All canopy parts smaller than 10 cm in diameter were directly weighed, sampled and oven-dried at 105°C until constant weight. Volume of different tree parts was calculated and in combination with basic wood density used to calculate the biomass. It was established that a typically harvested Kiaat tree had an above-ground dry volume of 1.63 m3, of which 1.34 m3 (82%) was utilisable timber volume but that only 0.37 m3 (23%) was used and 0.97 m3 (59%) was left behind in the field. Merchantable logs were mainly cut into planks from which finished products - beds, chairs, doors and tables - were made. An average of 10.7 planks were cut per trunk and the local price of planks was N$45.26 at the time of the study. More income is generated from finished products compared to selling loose planks. Canopy parts were mainly cut into woodcrafts – bowls, music drums, and walking sticks. Current timber use value (N$484.73) surpasses carbon value (N$123.74). A further result of the study was that a significantly higher income could be earned for local livelihoods from Kiaat trees in the Kavango Region if trees were optimally used. Carbon trading is a noble conservation initiative, particularly when trees unsuitable for timber are considered. Use of timber trees exclusively for carbon trading is, however, not a viable option in respect of supporting local people’s livelihoods. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kiaatbome in Namibië word bedreig deur onvolhoubare ontginningspraktyke. Die doelwit van die studie was om die totale waarde van ‘n gemiddelde Kiaatboom, wat gekies is vir ontginning, te bepaal met die fokus op huidige houtwaarde, waarde van ‘n optimaal gebruikte boom, koolstofwaarde en alternatiewe gebruike vir Kiaatbome. Om hierdie doelwit te bereik is die volgende spesifieke sub-doelwitte gestel: (1) bepaal die totale boomvolume en optimale bruikbare houtvolume van ‘n gemiddelde Kiaatboom; (2) bepaal die hoeveelheid koolstof wat in die bogrondse dele van ‘n gemiddelde Kiaatboom gestoor word en bereken die monitêrewaarde daarvan; (3) bepaal die houtgebruiksvlakke en houtvermorsing van Kiaatbome; en (4) identifiseer alternatiewe gebruike om die vermorsing van Kiaatbome te verminder. Vorige studies oor Kiaat in Namibië en elders het gefokus op groei, ontwikkeling en sosio-ekonomiese aspekte van Kiaatbome. ‘n Kombinasie van ‘n sosio-ekonomiese opname en boomvolume en biomassa bepalings is gebruik vir die insameling van data. Die opname het ‘n Kiaat produkbepaling en gesig-tot-gesig persoonlike onderhoude met sleutel informante in en om Rundu behels. Boomkappers met permitte om kiaatbome te ontgin is gevra om 40 Kiaatbome te ontgin en data is versamel van elke boom voor en na ontginning. Die data het ingesluit: lae-stam deursnee, deursnee op borshoogte (DBH), bo-stam deursnee, stamlengte, stomphoogte, herwinde bruikbare stomplengte, bo- en onder- deursnee en lengtes van takke wat 10 cm of groter deursnee het. All kroondele 10 cm en kleiner in deursnee is geweeg en ‘n steekproef versamel wat oondroog gemaak is by 105ºC totdat konstante gewig bereik is. Die volume van verskillende boomdele is bereken en in kombinasie met houtdigtheid gebruik om biomassa te bereken. Dit is bereken dat ‘n tipiese geoeste Kiaatboom ‘n bogrondse droë volume van 1.63 m³ het, waarvan 1.34 m³ (82%) bruikbare houtvolume is. Net 0.37 m³ (23%) van die bruikbare houtvolume is egter gebruik en 0.97 m³ (59%) is agtergelaat in die veld. Bruikbare stompe is meestal opgesaag in planke waarvan finale produkte soos beddens, stoele, deure en tafels gemaak is. ‘n Gemiddeld van 10.7 planke is verkry per stomp en die plaaslike prys van planke was N$45.26 gedurende die studie tydperk. Meer inkomste is verkry van finale produkte as van die verkoop van los planke. Kroondele is meestal opgesaag in houtkunswerke soos bakke, musiekdromme en kieries. Die huidige houtwaarde van N$484.73 is meer as die koolstof waarde (N$123.74) van die bome. ‘n Belangrike resultaat van die studie is dat ‘n beduidende groter inkomste gegenereer kan word vir plaaslike lewensbestaan van Kiaatbome in die Kavangostreek as bome optimaal benut word. Koolstofhandel is ‘n edele bewaringskonsep, veral as bome ongeskik vir houtgebruik is soos in die geval van krom bome en jonger bome. Die eksklusiewe gebruik van houtbome vir koolstofhandel is nie ‘n lewensvatbare opsie om plaaslike mense se lewensbestaan te ondersteun nie.

La présente étude s’inscrit dans le cadre de la recherche d’une meilleure compréhension de l’analyse de la valorisation des PFNL des plateaux Batéké en périphérie de Kinshasa en vue d’envisager un mode d’exploitation qui garantisse la conservation et l’utilisation durable et d’apporter les éléments indispensables à la gestion des PFNL. Les enquêtes par sondages sur une base de 280 ménages ont été renforcées par 22 entretiens par focus group. Des observations directes sur le terrain, des enquêtes socioéconomiques, ethnoécologiques sur les stratégies d’exploitation des PFNL, l’étude de la filière PFNL et les études d’impacts d’activités d’exploitation des PFNL ont été conduites entre juin 2005 et novembre 2006 dans 7 villages de Plateaux de Batéké: Mbankana, Dumi, Mampu, Mutiene, Kinzono, Inzolo et 4ème Cité CADIM à plus de 140 km à l’Est de la ville Kinshasa.<p>L’étude de la valorisation des PFNL des Plateaux de Batéké a montré que 169 espèces de PFNL appartenant à 65 familles des plantes sont valorisées. Cinq espèces de PFNL sont les plus exploitées dans la zone d’étude. Il s’agit de Pteridium sp, du vin indigène (de palmier à huile et de raphia), de Dioscorea praehensilis, de Talinum triangulare et du rotin. La détermination des facteurs explicatifs du choix de l’exploitation des PFNL les plus exploités dans la zone a été estimé par la régression multiple modèle Probit. Ce modèle a l’avantage d’inclure dans sa structure mathématique, la dépendance mutuelle et des informations sur la pertinence des variables explicatives présentes dans le modèle final. La consommation du Pteridium sp. par le ménage, son prix de vente, sa disponibilité dans les écosystèmes, la distance à parcourir par rapport aux lieux de prélèvement, le statut matrimonial du chef de ménage, la distance par rapport au marché et l’appartenance à une structure locale sont des facteurs explicatifs déterminant dans le choix de l’exploitation du Pteridium sp. Pour l’exploitation du vin indigène, la distance par rapport aux lieux de prélèvement, la taille de ménage, les connaissances endogènes sur le vin indigène, la distance par rapport au marché et le revenu en sont des facteurs explicatifs. Le revenu issu de la vente, les connaissances endogènes, le prix de vente et la consommation sont des facteurs explicatifs déterminants pour l’exploitation de Dioscorea praehensilis. Pour Talinum triangulare, le revenu issu de la vente, la consommation, la distance par rapport au lieu de prélèvement, le prix de vente et les connaissances endogènes en sont les facteurs déterminants. Pour le rotin, la consommation, le prix de vente, les connaissances endogènes et la disponibilité en rotins dans les écosystèmes en sont les déterminants. Les PFNL vendus sur les marchés et points de ventes des Plateaux de Batéké proviennent des jachères forestières, des forêt-galeries et des savanes. Le coût total moyen d’exploitation d’un kg du PFNL est estimé à 0,08 $ US pour le Pteridium sp. 0,05 $ US pour le vin indigène, 0,05 $ US pour le Dioscorea praehensilis, 0,05 $ US pour le Talinum triangulare et à 0,20 $ US pour le rotin. Un exploitant villageois réalise par journée de travail, un revenu moyen de près de 2 $ US pour le Pteridium sp, 9 $ US pour le vin indigène, 1 $ US pour le Dioscorea praehensilis, 0,26 $ US pour le Talinum triangulare et près de 4 $ US pour le rotin. Hormis la valeur socio-économique que la valorisation des PFNL apporte à l’écosystème, certains méfaits sur la durabilité des écosystèmes sont occasionnés. Enfin, cette étude démontre qu’il y a des interactions entre les paysans enquêtés et leurs milieux. La définition d’une politique raisonnée de valorisation des PFNL intégrée à l’approche interdisciplinaire du développement durable reste incontournable pour la zone d’étude. <p><p><p>The present study aims to improve the understanding of the valorisation of the NTFP of the Batéké Highlands situated in the periphery of Kinshasa in order to develop an exploitation mode that guarantees the conservation and a sustainable use and to provide the necessary elements to the management of the NTFP. The investigations by polls on a basis of 280 households have been reinforced by 22 interviews by means of focus groups. Direct observations in situ, socio-economic and ethno-ecological analyses of the exploitation of the NTFP, an analysis of the NTFP processing pathway and an impact study of the exploitation of the NTFP have been carried out between June 2005 and November 2006 in 7 villages of the Batéké Highlands: Mbankana, Dumi, Mampu, Muti-mutiene, Kinzono, Inzolo and 4th City CADIM situated at more than 140 km to the East of Kinshasa. The study of the valorisation of the NTFP of the Batéké Highlands showed that 169 species of NTFP belonging to 65 plant families are valorised. Five species of NTFP are the most exploited in the study area: Pteridium sp, indigenous wine (of palm oil and raffia), Dioscorea praehensilis, Talinum triangulare and rattan. The determination of the factors of the choice of the most exploited NTFP have been estimated by multiple regression and the Probit model. This model has the advantage to include mutual dependence in its mathematical structure as well as information on the relevance of the explanatory variables in the final model. The consumption of Pteridium sp. by household, its selling price, its availability in the ecosystems, the distance to the places of collection, the matrimonial status of the household chief, the distance to the market and the adherence to a local structure are the explanatory factors determining the choice of Pteridium sp. For the exploitation of the indigenous wine, the distance to the places of collection, the size of household, endogenous knowledge on the indigenous wine, the distance to the market and the income are the explanatory factors. The income generated by the sale, endogenous knowledge, the selling price and the consumption rate are the explanatory factors for Dioscorea praehensilis. For Talinum triangulare, the income generated by the sale, the consumption, the distance to the place of collection, the selling price and endogenous knowledge are the determining factors. For rattan, the consumption, the selling price, endogenous knowledge and the availability of rattan in the ecosystems are the determinants of the choice. The NTFP sold on the markets and points of sales of the Batéké Highlands are collected in forest fallow lands, forest-galleries and savannas. The overall average cost of exploitation of one kg of NTFP is estimated at 0.08 $ US for Pteridium sp. at 0.05 $ US for indigenous wine, at 0.05 $ US for Dioscorea praehensilis, at 0.05 $ US for Talinum triangulare and at 0.20 $ US for rattan. A local collector obtains per working day an average income of about 2 $ US for Pteridium sp, 9 $US for the indigenous wine, 1 $ US for Dioscorea praehensilis, 0.26 $ US for Talinum triangulare and about 4 $ US for rattan. Besides the socioeconomic value that the valorisation of the NTFP brings to the ecosystem, some bad practices for the durability of the ecosystems are observed. Finally, this study demonstrates that there are close interactions between the peasants questioned and their environment. The development of a reasonable policy of valorisation of the NTFP integrated with an interdisciplinary approach of sustainable development remains crucial for our study site.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences agronomiques et ingénierie biologique / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This working paper was developed with the intention to provide a guideline for participatory analysis and development of commercial forest product value chains, in the context of developing countries. Basically, it was designed for identification and implementation of interventions or upgrading measures for the improvement of commercial forest product (Bamboo, Natural gum and resin, and Gum Arabic) value chains in Ethiopia and Sudan within the framework of a collaborative research project - CHAnces IN Sustainability: promoting natural resource based product chains in East Africa (CHAINS). The PIP instrument could also be applied for other commercial non-timber forest products (NTFPs), by adjusting to the local contexts and environments. It can be an important guide for value chain analysts, especially in the process of designing and verifying upgrading actions through the application of tools like interviewing actors, group discussions, or facilitated workshops. This working paper particularly provides: - Background information on basic concepts of value chain analysis and development; - Review of methodological frameworks for participatory value chain analysis and development; - Practical details for participatory value chain analysis as implemented by the CHAINS project, including checklists, diagrams, and tools used in the participatory process; - Critical reflection on the practical application of the approach:1. About the working paper 7 1.1. Purpose 7 1.2. Structure of the working paper 8 2. Introduction 9 2.1. Background: value chains 9 2.2. Background: Participative Innovation Platforms 12 2.3. The context 13 2.4. Overview of the CHAINS project 14 3. Methodological approach of PIP 16 3.1. Ownership and effect 16 3.2. Stages and roles 18 3.3. Diagnostic survey 21 3.3.1. Planning the diagnostic surveys 22 3.3.2. Conducting the diagnostic surveys 24 4. PIP workshops 26 4.1.1. The workshop contents 27 4.1.2. Selection of participants 28 4.1.3. Identification of facilitators 30 4.2. The workshop sessions 32 4.2.1. Schedule of PIP workshop 32 4.2.2. Preparatory session 33 4.2.3. Session 1: Welcome and Introductory 34 4.2.4. Session 2: Vetting of the survey results and detailed VC analysis 35 4.2.5. Session 3: Identification and analysis of critical points 37 4.2.6. Session 4: Identification and analysis of possible solutions 45 4.2.7. Session 5: Development and selection of upgrading strategies 46 4.2.8. Workshop evaluation and documentation 50 5. Limits of the PIP – a critical reflection 50 6. References 52 / Das als Leitfaden gestaltete Arbeitspapier beschreibt Schritt für Schritt das Vorgehen bei der Implementierung von ‚Participative Innovation Platforms‘ (PIP). Das PIP Methodenpaket zur partizipativen Analyse und Entwicklung von Wertschöpfungsketten in Entwicklungsländern wird an Beispielen von kommerziellen Nichtholz-Waldprodukten aus Trockenwäldern Ostafrikas erklärt und gibt praktische Unterstützung zur Durchführung der PIP Workshops mit dem Ziel, Aktivitäten und Interventionen für Innovationen mit Relevanz für die gesamte Wertschöpfungskette gemeinsam mit den beteiligten Akteuren zu vereinbaren. Das PIP Konzept wurde im Rahmen des entwicklungsorientierten Forschungsprojekts CHAINS (CHAnces IN Sustainability: promoting natural resource based product chains in East Africa) entwickelt, um Bambus -, Weihrauch- und Gummi arabicum Wertschöpfungsketten in Äthiopien und dem Sudan zu verbessern. Das PIP Instrument stellt die Akteure in den Mittelpunkt und kann deshalb sehr flexibel auch für andere Produkte angewendet werden. Der Leitfaden bietet: - Hintergrundinformationen zum Konzept von Wertschöpfungsketten; - Einführung in den methodischen Rahmen für partizipative Analyse und Entwicklung von Wertschöpfungsketten; - Praktische Anleitung für die partizipative Analyse von Wertschöpfungsketten nach dem im CHAINS Projekt entwickelten Methodenpaket, einschließlich Checklisten, Diagrammen und Methoden; - Kritische Reflektion zu Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des PIP Methodenpakets.:1. About the working paper 7 1.1. Purpose 7 1.2. Structure of the working paper 8 2. Introduction 9 2.1. Background: value chains 9 2.2. Background: Participative Innovation Platforms 12 2.3. The context 13 2.4. Overview of the CHAINS project 14 3. Methodological approach of PIP 16 3.1. Ownership and effect 16 3.2. Stages and roles 18 3.3. Diagnostic survey 21 3.3.1. Planning the diagnostic surveys 22 3.3.2. Conducting the diagnostic surveys 24 4. PIP workshops 26 4.1.1. The workshop contents 27 4.1.2. Selection of participants 28 4.1.3. Identification of facilitators 30 4.2. The workshop sessions 32 4.2.1. Schedule of PIP workshop 32 4.2.2. Preparatory session 33 4.2.3. Session 1: Welcome and Introductory 34 4.2.4. Session 2: Vetting of the survey results and detailed VC analysis 35 4.2.5. Session 3: Identification and analysis of critical points 37 4.2.6. Session 4: Identification and analysis of possible solutions 45 4.2.7. Session 5: Development and selection of upgrading strategies 46 4.2.8. Workshop evaluation and documentation 50 5. Limits of the PIP – a critical reflection 50 6. References 52

Hårdgörning av trä syftar till att göra materialet hårdare. Detta går att åstadkomma genom komprimering, det komprimerade materialet tenderar dock att återgå mot sin ursprungsform då materialet utsätts för fukt om ingen låsning sker. Låsningen kan ske mekaniskt i en treskiktskonstruktion som motverkar träets fuktrörelser. Dessa skivor har dock visat sig vara instabila och tidigare försök har uppvisat deformationer i form av kupning. Denna undersökning syftar till att utreda förutsättningarna för att använda komprimerad asp samt att ta fram underlag för framtagning av en kommersiell produkt. Praktiska tester har genomförts för att studera hårdhet, återfjädring och densitet hos det komprimerade virket. Vidare har treskiktsskivor tagits fram för att testa om det går att få en stabil konstruktion genom att variera tjockleken på spärrskiktet. Även skillnader i acklimatiseringstid och fuktkvotens inverkan för virkets återfjädring har studerats. Resultaten visar på att aspens hårdhet efter komprimering blir i samma nivå som bok och ask, en låg fuktkkvot vid komprimering av materialet ger en låg återfjädring, komprimerat material har en längre acklimatiseringstid till jämviktsfuktkvot och materialet går att låsa tvärs fiberriktningen i en treskiktskonstruktion. / To make wood harder it can be densified. This can be achieved by compression, the compressed material tends to return to the original shape when it is exposed to moisture fluxations and if no form of fixation occurs. The fixation can be done mechanically in a three-layer panel construction which reduce movements in the timber. These panels have been found to be unstable and previous attempts have shown deformations in form of cupping. This study aims to evaluate the conditions for using compressed aspen wood, and to provide a basis for development of a commercial product. Practical tests have been conducted to study hardness, springback and density of the compressed wood. In addition, three-layer panels have been developed to test whether it is possible to have a stable construction by varying the thickness of the buttom layer. Differences in acclimatisation time and the moisture contents effect on the springback has aslo been studied. The results show that the hardness of aspen wood after compression is in equal levels with beech and ashes, a low moisture contet provides a low springback, compressed timber have a longer time for acclimatisation and it is possible to fixate the material in the direction across the grain in a three-layer panel construction.

<p>Hårdgörning av trä syftar till att göra materialet hårdare. Detta går att åstadkomma genom komprimering, det komprimerade materialet tenderar dock att återgå mot sin ursprungsform då materialet utsätts för fukt om ingen låsning sker. Låsningen kan ske mekaniskt i en treskiktskonstruktion som motverkar träets fuktrörelser. Dessa skivor har dock visat sig vara instabila och tidigare försök har uppvisat deformationer i form av kupning. Denna undersökning syftar till att utreda förutsättningarna för att använda komprimerad asp samt att ta fram underlag för framtagning av en kommersiell produkt.</p><p>Praktiska tester har genomförts för att studera hårdhet, återfjädring och densitet hos det komprimerade virket. Vidare har treskiktsskivor tagits fram för att testa om det går att få en stabil konstruktion genom att variera tjockleken på spärrskiktet. Även skillnader i acklimatiseringstid och fuktkvotens inverkan för virkets återfjädring har studerats.</p><p>Resultaten visar på att aspens hårdhet efter komprimering blir i samma nivå som bok och ask, en låg fuktkkvot vid komprimering av materialet ger en låg återfjädring, komprimerat material har en längre acklimatiseringstid till jämviktsfuktkvot och materialet går att låsa tvärs fiberriktningen i en treskiktskonstruktion.</p> / <p>To make wood harder it can be densified. This can be achieved by compression, the compressed material tends to return to the original shape when it is exposed to moisture fluxations and if no form of fixation occurs. The fixation can be done mechanically in a three-layer panel construction which reduce movements in the timber. These panels have been found to be unstable and previous attempts have shown deformations in form of cupping. This study aims to evaluate the conditions for using compressed aspen wood, and to provide a basis for development of a commercial product.</p><p>Practical tests have been conducted to study hardness, springback and density of the compressed wood. In addition, three-layer panels have been developed to test whether it is possible to have a stable construction by varying the thickness of the buttom layer. Differences in acclimatisation time and the moisture contents effect on the springback has aslo been studied.</p><p>The results show that the hardness of aspen wood after compression is in equal levels with beech and ashes, a low moisture contet provides a low springback, compressed timber have a longer time for acclimatisation and it is possible to fixate the material in the direction across the grain in a three-layer panel construction.</p>

A comercialização de produtos florestais não madeireiros (PFNMs) popularizou-se como atividade promotora do desenvolvimento socioeconômico de comunidades florestais com baixo impacto ambiental. Há evidências, contudo, de que a exploração possa produzir efeitos ecológicos e socioeconômicos negativos, sugerindo que é necessário monitorar tais iniciativas. A comercialização frequentemente ocorre em áreas remotas e em contextos de pobreza, como é o caso de muitas daquelas da Amazônia brasileira. Desta forma, é necessário que o monitoramento restrinja-se a avaliar os efeitos evidenciados como mais comuns em estudos anteriores. Este estudo revisa e sintetiza as evidências científicas dos efeitos da exploração de PFNMs sobre parâmetros ecológicos e socioeconômicos e, a partir daí, indica aqueles mais relevantes ao monitoramento. O estudo também levanta até que ponto o monitoramento é implementado no contexto da Amazônia brasileira e avalia quais os parâmetros importantes e viáveis de monitoramento neste caso específico. Para isso, foram realizadas revisões sistemáticas da literatura e a consulta a profissionais da área através do método Delphi. Os resultados indicam que efeitos ecológicos negativos são frequentes, principalmente quando se coletam folhas ou cascas. Alterações em órgãos ou processos fisiológicos e a taxa de sobrevivência dos espécimes explorados são parâmetros que devem ser monitorados, em particular quando se coletam frutos e partes vegetativas. Para todos os tipos de PFNMs, o tamanho e a estrutura populacional são parâmetros prioritários ao monitoramento. A riqueza de espécies da comunidade explorada merece atenção, principalmente quando se coletam frutos. Para os aspectos socioeconômicos, efeitos positivos foram mais frequentes que negativos. A contribuição da renda monetária obtida com o comércio na renda total, a regularidade de ingresso desta renda e o papel dos PFNMs como recursos de salvaguarda são parâmetros do capital financeiro prioritários ao monitoramento. Para o capital social, o empoderamento feminino, a coesão de grupo e o acesso aos benefícios gerados pela comercialização devem ser monitorados. Na Amazônia brasileira são poucas as iniciativas de implementação do monitoramento da comercialização de PFNMs. Embora este seja considerado importante, existem dificuldades que derivam principalmente da falta de apoio institucional, políticas de incentivo e de recursos financeiros. Os profissionais participantes do Delphi consideram que os parâmetros ecológicos mais importantes a monitorar neste contexto são o tamanho e a estrutura populacional do recurso explorado, o aumento da taxa de mortalidade, a quantidade total de recurso extraída e a técnica de coleta utilizada. Para os parâmetros econômicos, aspectos do mercado, como o preço pago ao coletor, a demanda e a qualidade do produto, bem como a renda monetária obtida pelos indivíduos são os parâmetros considerados mais importantes. Por fim, para os aspectos sociais, os efeitos na cultura, na qualidade de vida e na organização interna da comunidade foram priorizados. Os profissionais indicam que é viável estabelecer o monitoramento dos parâmetros levantados. / Amazon, non-timber forest products, ecological effects, socioeconomic effects, monitoring.

A comercialização de produtos florestais não madeireiros (PFNMs) popularizou-se como atividade promotora do desenvolvimento socioeconômico de comunidades florestais com baixo impacto ambiental. Há evidências, contudo, de que a exploração possa produzir efeitos ecológicos e socioeconômicos negativos, sugerindo que é necessário monitorar tais iniciativas. A comercialização frequentemente ocorre em áreas remotas e em contextos de pobreza, como é o caso de muitas daquelas da Amazônia brasileira. Desta forma, é necessário que o monitoramento restrinja-se a avaliar os efeitos evidenciados como mais comuns em estudos anteriores. Este estudo revisa e sintetiza as evidências científicas dos efeitos da exploração de PFNMs sobre parâmetros ecológicos e socioeconômicos e, a partir daí, indica aqueles mais relevantes ao monitoramento. O estudo também levanta até que ponto o monitoramento é implementado no contexto da Amazônia brasileira e avalia quais os parâmetros importantes e viáveis de monitoramento neste caso específico. Para isso, foram realizadas revisões sistemáticas da literatura e a consulta a profissionais da área através do método Delphi. Os resultados indicam que efeitos ecológicos negativos são frequentes, principalmente quando se coletam folhas ou cascas. Alterações em órgãos ou processos fisiológicos e a taxa de sobrevivência dos espécimes explorados são parâmetros que devem ser monitorados, em particular quando se coletam frutos e partes vegetativas. Para todos os tipos de PFNMs, o tamanho e a estrutura populacional são parâmetros prioritários ao monitoramento. A riqueza de espécies da comunidade explorada merece atenção, principalmente quando se coletam frutos. Para os aspectos socioeconômicos, efeitos positivos foram mais frequentes que negativos. A contribuição da renda monetária obtida com o comércio na renda total, a regularidade de ingresso desta renda e o papel dos PFNMs como recursos de salvaguarda são parâmetros do capital financeiro prioritários ao monitoramento. Para o capital social, o empoderamento feminino, a coesão de grupo e o acesso aos benefícios gerados pela comercialização devem ser monitorados. Na Amazônia brasileira são poucas as iniciativas de implementação do monitoramento da comercialização de PFNMs. Embora este seja considerado importante, existem dificuldades que derivam principalmente da falta de apoio institucional, políticas de incentivo e de recursos financeiros. Os profissionais participantes do Delphi consideram que os parâmetros ecológicos mais importantes a monitorar neste contexto são o tamanho e a estrutura populacional do recurso explorado, o aumento da taxa de mortalidade, a quantidade total de recurso extraída e a técnica de coleta utilizada. Para os parâmetros econômicos, aspectos do mercado, como o preço pago ao coletor, a demanda e a qualidade do produto, bem como a renda monetária obtida pelos indivíduos são os parâmetros considerados mais importantes. Por fim, para os aspectos sociais, os efeitos na cultura, na qualidade de vida e na organização interna da comunidade foram priorizados. Os profissionais indicam que é viável estabelecer o monitoramento dos parâmetros levantados. / Amazon, non-timber forest products, ecological effects, socioeconomic effects, monitoring.