In occupational settings where rhodium is produced or used, such as the mining industry, refineries and catalytic industries, workers are at risk of being dermally exposed to this metal in either the metallic form or its salt compounds. A considerable amount of contradictory literature has been published with regard to the sensitising abilities of rhodium and no published information is available on the occupational dermal exposure of rhodium as well as its ability to permeate through the skin. Previous studies conducted on the in vitro permeation of metals, such as nickel, cobalt and chromium, have indicated that certain metals undergo oxidation in the presence of sweat and form ions which are able to permeate through skin. For some metals, this ionisation takes place more rapidly in an acidic environment and a decrease in the environmental pH would cause an increase in the release of ions from those metals. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine whether rhodium in the form of rhodium trichloride (RhCl3) would be able to permeate through the skin in vitro, as well as to determine whether any differences exist between the in vitro permeation of rhodium at a pH of 4.5 and a pH of 6.5. Methods: Full thickness abdominal skin was obtained as biological waste after surgery from Caucasian females ranging between 39 and 42 years of age. The Franz diffusion cell method was used in which the experimental cells contained synthetic sweat with RhCl3 and the blanks did not contain any RhCl3 in the donor compartment. All of the cells contained a physiological receptor solution in the receptor compartment. At intervals of 8, 12 and 24 hours, 2 ml of the receptor solution were removed for analysis. The receptor compartment was rinsed with 2 ml receptor solution which was also removed for analysis and 2 ml of fresh receptor solution was added to the compartment. After 24 hours, the receptor and donor solution was removed respectively for analysis and the skin was removed for digestion, prior to analysis. The mass of rhodium in the receptor solutions were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. The donor solutions and digested skin solutions were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry. Results: At both pH values of 4.5 and 6.5, rhodium was able to permeate through the skin with a cumulative increase in permeation over prolonged exposure time. After 8, 12 and 24 hours, the amount of rhodium that permeated through the skin was higher at pH 4.5 than for pH 6.5. After 12 hours, the permeation of rhodium was statistically significantly higher for pH 4.5 than for pH 6.5 (p = 0.02). At both pH values, the percentage of rhodium that accumulated in the skin was higher than the percentage of rhodium that diffused through the skin and the lag time was less than six hours. Conclusion: At both pH values of 4.5 and 6.5, rhodium was able to permeate through the skin. A decrease in the pH of synthetic sweat led to an increase in the permeation of rhodium and it is recommended that future in vitro permeation studies be conducted at a pH of 4.5, as the skin surface pH of workers are generally considered to be below 5. A higher percentage of rhodium was retained in the skin than the percentage that diffused through, indicating the ability of rhodium to accumulate in the skin, from where it may exert health effects, such as sensitisation. / MSc (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

In occupational settings where rhodium is produced or used, such as the mining industry, refineries and catalytic industries, workers are at risk of being dermally exposed to this metal in either the metallic form or its salt compounds. A considerable amount of contradictory literature has been published with regard to the sensitising abilities of rhodium and no published information is available on the occupational dermal exposure of rhodium as well as its ability to permeate through the skin. Previous studies conducted on the in vitro permeation of metals, such as nickel, cobalt and chromium, have indicated that certain metals undergo oxidation in the presence of sweat and form ions which are able to permeate through skin. For some metals, this ionisation takes place more rapidly in an acidic environment and a decrease in the environmental pH would cause an increase in the release of ions from those metals. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine whether rhodium in the form of rhodium trichloride (RhCl3) would be able to permeate through the skin in vitro, as well as to determine whether any differences exist between the in vitro permeation of rhodium at a pH of 4.5 and a pH of 6.5. Methods: Full thickness abdominal skin was obtained as biological waste after surgery from Caucasian females ranging between 39 and 42 years of age. The Franz diffusion cell method was used in which the experimental cells contained synthetic sweat with RhCl3 and the blanks did not contain any RhCl3 in the donor compartment. All of the cells contained a physiological receptor solution in the receptor compartment. At intervals of 8, 12 and 24 hours, 2 ml of the receptor solution were removed for analysis. The receptor compartment was rinsed with 2 ml receptor solution which was also removed for analysis and 2 ml of fresh receptor solution was added to the compartment. After 24 hours, the receptor and donor solution was removed respectively for analysis and the skin was removed for digestion, prior to analysis. The mass of rhodium in the receptor solutions were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. The donor solutions and digested skin solutions were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry. Results: At both pH values of 4.5 and 6.5, rhodium was able to permeate through the skin with a cumulative increase in permeation over prolonged exposure time. After 8, 12 and 24 hours, the amount of rhodium that permeated through the skin was higher at pH 4.5 than for pH 6.5. After 12 hours, the permeation of rhodium was statistically significantly higher for pH 4.5 than for pH 6.5 (p = 0.02). At both pH values, the percentage of rhodium that accumulated in the skin was higher than the percentage of rhodium that diffused through the skin and the lag time was less than six hours. Conclusion: At both pH values of 4.5 and 6.5, rhodium was able to permeate through the skin. A decrease in the pH of synthetic sweat led to an increase in the permeation of rhodium and it is recommended that future in vitro permeation studies be conducted at a pH of 4.5, as the skin surface pH of workers are generally considered to be below 5. A higher percentage of rhodium was retained in the skin than the percentage that diffused through, indicating the ability of rhodium to accumulate in the skin, from where it may exert health effects, such as sensitisation. / MSc (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Achyrocline satureioides (AS) - Asteraceae é uma planta medicinal amplamente usada na América do Sul. Uma vasta literatura tem mostrado a atividade antioxidante dos extratos de AS. Tal atividade tem sido relacionada às principais agliconas flavonoídicas dos extratos de AS: quercetina, luteolina e 3-O-metilquercetina. Neste estudo, descrevemos o desenvolvimento de hidrogéis antioxidantes contendo extrato de AS incorporado em nanoemulsões, objetivando a aplicação tópica. Em uma primeira etapa, nanoemulsões compostas do extrato de AS, triglicerídeos de cadeia média, lecitina de gema de ovo, polissorbato 80 e água foram preparadas por emulsificação espontânea. Este procedimento conduziu à obtenção de nanoemulsões monodispersas (índice de polidispersão <0,2) com tamanho médio de gotícula de 250 nm, confirmado por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, e potencial zeta de aproximadamente -50 mV. Tais propriedades foram similares após a incorporação das nanoemulsões em hidrogéis de Carbopol Ultrez (0,15%) e estas mantiveram-se inalteradas ao longo do tempo (até 90 dias). Os hidrogéis exibiram um comportamento não-Newtoniano pseudoplástico. Foi observada uma maior liberação de 3-O-metilquercetina a partir das ASNE quando comparada com o HASNE. Estudos de permeação/retenção em pele de orelha suína foram realizados utilizando células de difusão do tipo Franz durante 8 horas. Os flavonoides foram retidos progressivamente na pele com um aumento na quantidade de formulação colocada no compartimento doador, até atingir um platô em aproximadamente 2 ug/cm2. Neste platô foi detectada uma maior retenção de 3-O-metilquercetina em comparação com os outros flavonoides. Finalmente, a proteção da pele de orelha suína pelas formulações contra o estresse oxidativo gerado pela luz UVA/UVB, foi evidenciado por meio de técnicas como TBARS, carbonilação de proteínas e grupamentos tióis totais. Os resultados globais mostraram o potencial das formulações desenvolvidas neste estudo visando à prevenção do estresse oxidativo na pele. / Achyrocline satureioides (AS) - Marcela is a medicinal plant widely used in South America. A well-documented literature has shown the antioxidant activity of the extracts of A. satureioides. Such activity has been related to the main aglycone flavonoids of AS: quercetin, luteolin, and 3-O-methylquercetin. In this study, we described the development of antioxidant hydrogels containing an A. satureioides extract-loaded nanoemulsions aimed at topical application. In the first step, nanoemulsions composed of A. satureioides extract, medium chain triglycerides, lecithin yolk egg, polysorbate 80, and water were prepared by means of the spontaneous emulsification. This procedure led to obtaining monodisperse nanoemulsions (polydispersity index <0.2) with average droplet size of 250 nm, confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, and zeta potential of approximately -50mV. Such properties were quite similar after thickening of nanoemulsions with Carbopol® Ultrez (0.15%) and remained unchanged over time (up to 90 days). Hydrogels exhibit a non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behavior. A higher release of 3-O-mehylquercetin from ASNE was observed when compared with HASNE. Studies of flavonoids permeation/retention through porcine ear skin were performed using Franz diffusion cells during 8 hours. Flavonoids were progressively retained into the porcine ear skin with an increase of the amount of formulation placed in donor compartment, until it reached a plateau of approximately 2 ug/cm2. At this plateau, it was detected a higher retention of 3MQ in comparison with other flavonoids. Finally, a protection the porcine ear skin by formulations, against oxidative stress generated by UVA/UVB light, was demonstrated by means of TBARS, protein carbonylation, and total protein thiol content assays. The overall results showed the potential of the formulations developed in this study for the prevention of oxidative stress on the skin.

Achyrocline satureioides (AS) - Asteraceae é uma planta medicinal amplamente usada na América do Sul. Uma vasta literatura tem mostrado a atividade antioxidante dos extratos de AS. Tal atividade tem sido relacionada às principais agliconas flavonoídicas dos extratos de AS: quercetina, luteolina e 3-O-metilquercetina. Neste estudo, descrevemos o desenvolvimento de hidrogéis antioxidantes contendo extrato de AS incorporado em nanoemulsões, objetivando a aplicação tópica. Em uma primeira etapa, nanoemulsões compostas do extrato de AS, triglicerídeos de cadeia média, lecitina de gema de ovo, polissorbato 80 e água foram preparadas por emulsificação espontânea. Este procedimento conduziu à obtenção de nanoemulsões monodispersas (índice de polidispersão <0,2) com tamanho médio de gotícula de 250 nm, confirmado por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, e potencial zeta de aproximadamente -50 mV. Tais propriedades foram similares após a incorporação das nanoemulsões em hidrogéis de Carbopol Ultrez (0,15%) e estas mantiveram-se inalteradas ao longo do tempo (até 90 dias). Os hidrogéis exibiram um comportamento não-Newtoniano pseudoplástico. Foi observada uma maior liberação de 3-O-metilquercetina a partir das ASNE quando comparada com o HASNE. Estudos de permeação/retenção em pele de orelha suína foram realizados utilizando células de difusão do tipo Franz durante 8 horas. Os flavonoides foram retidos progressivamente na pele com um aumento na quantidade de formulação colocada no compartimento doador, até atingir um platô em aproximadamente 2 ug/cm2. Neste platô foi detectada uma maior retenção de 3-O-metilquercetina em comparação com os outros flavonoides. Finalmente, a proteção da pele de orelha suína pelas formulações contra o estresse oxidativo gerado pela luz UVA/UVB, foi evidenciado por meio de técnicas como TBARS, carbonilação de proteínas e grupamentos tióis totais. Os resultados globais mostraram o potencial das formulações desenvolvidas neste estudo visando à prevenção do estresse oxidativo na pele. / Achyrocline satureioides (AS) - Marcela is a medicinal plant widely used in South America. A well-documented literature has shown the antioxidant activity of the extracts of A. satureioides. Such activity has been related to the main aglycone flavonoids of AS: quercetin, luteolin, and 3-O-methylquercetin. In this study, we described the development of antioxidant hydrogels containing an A. satureioides extract-loaded nanoemulsions aimed at topical application. In the first step, nanoemulsions composed of A. satureioides extract, medium chain triglycerides, lecithin yolk egg, polysorbate 80, and water were prepared by means of the spontaneous emulsification. This procedure led to obtaining monodisperse nanoemulsions (polydispersity index <0.2) with average droplet size of 250 nm, confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, and zeta potential of approximately -50mV. Such properties were quite similar after thickening of nanoemulsions with Carbopol® Ultrez (0.15%) and remained unchanged over time (up to 90 days). Hydrogels exhibit a non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behavior. A higher release of 3-O-mehylquercetin from ASNE was observed when compared with HASNE. Studies of flavonoids permeation/retention through porcine ear skin were performed using Franz diffusion cells during 8 hours. Flavonoids were progressively retained into the porcine ear skin with an increase of the amount of formulation placed in donor compartment, until it reached a plateau of approximately 2 ug/cm2. At this plateau, it was detected a higher retention of 3MQ in comparison with other flavonoids. Finally, a protection the porcine ear skin by formulations, against oxidative stress generated by UVA/UVB light, was demonstrated by means of TBARS, protein carbonylation, and total protein thiol content assays. The overall results showed the potential of the formulations developed in this study for the prevention of oxidative stress on the skin.

Achyrocline satureioides (AS) - Asteraceae é uma planta medicinal amplamente usada na América do Sul. Uma vasta literatura tem mostrado a atividade antioxidante dos extratos de AS. Tal atividade tem sido relacionada às principais agliconas flavonoídicas dos extratos de AS: quercetina, luteolina e 3-O-metilquercetina. Neste estudo, descrevemos o desenvolvimento de hidrogéis antioxidantes contendo extrato de AS incorporado em nanoemulsões, objetivando a aplicação tópica. Em uma primeira etapa, nanoemulsões compostas do extrato de AS, triglicerídeos de cadeia média, lecitina de gema de ovo, polissorbato 80 e água foram preparadas por emulsificação espontânea. Este procedimento conduziu à obtenção de nanoemulsões monodispersas (índice de polidispersão <0,2) com tamanho médio de gotícula de 250 nm, confirmado por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, e potencial zeta de aproximadamente -50 mV. Tais propriedades foram similares após a incorporação das nanoemulsões em hidrogéis de Carbopol Ultrez (0,15%) e estas mantiveram-se inalteradas ao longo do tempo (até 90 dias). Os hidrogéis exibiram um comportamento não-Newtoniano pseudoplástico. Foi observada uma maior liberação de 3-O-metilquercetina a partir das ASNE quando comparada com o HASNE. Estudos de permeação/retenção em pele de orelha suína foram realizados utilizando células de difusão do tipo Franz durante 8 horas. Os flavonoides foram retidos progressivamente na pele com um aumento na quantidade de formulação colocada no compartimento doador, até atingir um platô em aproximadamente 2 ug/cm2. Neste platô foi detectada uma maior retenção de 3-O-metilquercetina em comparação com os outros flavonoides. Finalmente, a proteção da pele de orelha suína pelas formulações contra o estresse oxidativo gerado pela luz UVA/UVB, foi evidenciado por meio de técnicas como TBARS, carbonilação de proteínas e grupamentos tióis totais. Os resultados globais mostraram o potencial das formulações desenvolvidas neste estudo visando à prevenção do estresse oxidativo na pele. / Achyrocline satureioides (AS) - Marcela is a medicinal plant widely used in South America. A well-documented literature has shown the antioxidant activity of the extracts of A. satureioides. Such activity has been related to the main aglycone flavonoids of AS: quercetin, luteolin, and 3-O-methylquercetin. In this study, we described the development of antioxidant hydrogels containing an A. satureioides extract-loaded nanoemulsions aimed at topical application. In the first step, nanoemulsions composed of A. satureioides extract, medium chain triglycerides, lecithin yolk egg, polysorbate 80, and water were prepared by means of the spontaneous emulsification. This procedure led to obtaining monodisperse nanoemulsions (polydispersity index <0.2) with average droplet size of 250 nm, confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, and zeta potential of approximately -50mV. Such properties were quite similar after thickening of nanoemulsions with Carbopol® Ultrez (0.15%) and remained unchanged over time (up to 90 days). Hydrogels exhibit a non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behavior. A higher release of 3-O-mehylquercetin from ASNE was observed when compared with HASNE. Studies of flavonoids permeation/retention through porcine ear skin were performed using Franz diffusion cells during 8 hours. Flavonoids were progressively retained into the porcine ear skin with an increase of the amount of formulation placed in donor compartment, until it reached a plateau of approximately 2 ug/cm2. At this plateau, it was detected a higher retention of 3MQ in comparison with other flavonoids. Finally, a protection the porcine ear skin by formulations, against oxidative stress generated by UVA/UVB light, was demonstrated by means of TBARS, protein carbonylation, and total protein thiol content assays. The overall results showed the potential of the formulations developed in this study for the prevention of oxidative stress on the skin.

No description available.

Diploma thesis deals with the experimental study of transdermal transport of individual hydroxyacids and their combination with water-soluble vitamins. During this work the literature review was prepared, which was focused on the use of hydroxyacids in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. At the same time the current state of use of water-soluble vitamins for topical applications was studied. Series of experiments was performed using Franz diffusion cells to simulate transdermal transport in vitro across cutaneous, synthetic and artificial Strat M ® membranes. The methodology of sample preparation and analysis of their transport properties was invented and optimized. The optimized methodology was subsequently used in a series of diffusion experiments in which the penetrated amount of hydroxyacids was analyzed by ion chromatography. The concentration of water-soluble vitamins was determined by HPLC. All examined active substances demonstrate positive penetration properties. The best results were obtained with combination of glycolic acid with pyridoxine.