Soil degradation in the lowland soils of the Lower Fraser Valley area is an off-season (September-April) problem. The legacy of the degradation process is encountered every year in the form of ponding which delays farming operations such as cultivation and seeding. It is common for the lowland soils in west Delta to be left in a bare, loose, and therefore unstable state in the fall after harvest. As the result of raindrop impact on such a soil, a disaggregation process takes place which decreases the saturated hydraulic conductivity, the saturated water content, the air entry pressure head, and the water releasing ability of a soil. As a result of these changes the hydrologic responsiveness of a soil will decrease, decreasing its ability to allow rapid infiltration and drainage. The objective of this thesis was firstly, to investigate the causes of the soil structural degradation and secondly, to use some of the soil structural parameters to optimize the responsiveness of a soil and thirdly, to suggest a management model with the objective of improving the hydrologic responsiveness of a lowland soil. To fulfill the above objectives, in the first chapter, the process of soil degradation was studied on large undisturbed soil columns removed from two adjacent locations within an area of Ladner in west Delta, British Columbia. It was found that a disaggregation process caused by the impact of raindrops on a weakly aggregated soil was the main cause of a low hydrologic responsiveness at the beginning of the cultivation season. As a result of degradation of the soil surface layer, a surface seal can form with a saturated hydraulic conductivity in the order of 9.7x10⁻¹⁰ m s⁻¹. A surface seal can effectively decrease the infiltration rate, leading to the formation of a persistent pond which will make a soil untrafficable and unworkable. In the second chapter, a concept of "designer soil" was developed, where a set of "design hydrologic parameters" were identified for a partially hypothetical soil. A soil possessing hydrologic parameters better than the design parameters would therefore display a certain desired hydrologic responsiveness. In the third chapter, a descriptive management model was suggested with the objective of achieving the design parameters as identified in the second chapter. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

A comparative, year long (15 month) study of three lakes (Whonock, Munday, Como) in the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia was undertaken to gain information on the physicochemical and seasonal limits of scale-bearing Synuraceae (Chrysophyta). In addition, sporadic collections were made in different lakes in this region to augment the information provided from the three main lakes. The synuracean taxa are reviewed with worldwide distribution lists, and environmental and seasonal information are discussed. Thirty-one taxa of Chrysophyceae were identified, of which 20 are in the Synuraceae. Eight taxa within this family are new records for British Columbia, viz. : Mallomonas cratis var. asmundiae Wujek et Van der Veer Mallomonas papillosa Harris et Bradley Mallomonas doignonii var. tenuicostis Asmund et Cronberg Mallomonas transsylvanica Peterfi et Momeu Mallomonopsis ouradion (Harris et Bradley) Harris Paraphysomonas vestita (Stokes) de Saedeleer Synura splendida Korshikov Synura glabra Korshikov It was found that the Synuraceae are not restricted to cold waters, as often assumed. Some taxa are present throughout the year. They do seem to favour acidic and sometimes dystrophic environments, and it is suggested that factors such as pH or water chemistry should be investigated as probable controlling factors for synuracean populations. Of the 11 non-synuracean Chrysophyceae noted', six are new records for the Province: Bicoeca kepneri, Chrysococcystis elegans, Dinobryon crenulatum, Epipyxis lauterbornii, Epipyxis utriculus var. acuta, and Eusphaerella turfosa. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

A major contributor to global warming is the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Land use management may be a means to countering global warming by increasing the carbon sink potential. Terrestrial carbon budgets were prepared for forested (Douglas-fir), agricultural (hay), and urban sites in Abbotsford, B.C. The results indicate that the greatest amount of carbon is stored in the forested sites, followed by the hay sites, with the lowest amount in the urban sites. To maximize carbon in storage the use of trees either as forests or in pockets within the landscape is the best option. To simulate and to expand the utility of these carbon budgets, the study used the CENTURY model. The results of the simulations indicate that forests are a major carbon sink as was found earlier. Carbon storage under hay is at a relative steady state, except during the cultivation years when it becomes a carbon source. Lawn in an urban setting is a carbon source. The results of the simulations suggest that management can be used to increase the carbon sink. It also indicates that soils are a major carbon pool representing 20% of the forest, 90% of the hay, and 95% of the lawn budgets. For the general public and decision-makers to become more aware of the impact of changing land use on carbon storage, at the lot, local, or regional levels, they require a userfriendly decision-making tool. A derivative of the CENTURY model, CLU (for CENTURY Land Use), was developed. It was designed to be user-friendly and at the same time maintain the integrity of the parent model. It allows the user to input site-specific data and obtain site related output carbon data on a component basis, which can be used to assess how a potential change in land use or management may affect the amount of carbon in storage. The model should be suitable as a research tool and for planning and educational purposes.

Salvage investigations were carried out in 1970-71 at the Katz site (DiRj 1), a prehistoric pithouse settlement located along the Fraser River near the eastern end of the lower Fraser valley three miles downriver from Hope, B.C. Various hypotheses have been advanced to account for the presence of pithouses, a house type considered characteristic of the Plateau, in the lower Fraser river region. Archaeological research conducted at the Katz site has revealed (1) that the pithouse settlement was occupied about the middle of the first millennium B.C., (2) that the artefactual remains in association with the pithouse occupancy express technological affinities which are "interior", "coastal", as well as "local" in character, and (3) the site functioned as a multi-season activity locale. Archaeological investigations at Katz also yielded evidence of a utilization of the site prior to pithouse occupancy. In this earlier deposit, artefactual remains were found interbedded in floodplain alluvia. The stratigraphy, tools, and features, of this zone suggest a seasonal utilization of the site during this period, possibly associated with summer and perhaps fall fishing activities. These data are examined and discussed in the light of ecological information, ethnographic accounts, and previous archaeological findings in the region and adjacent regions. Evidence presented in this thesis adds to the empirical research previously undertaken for the purpose of establishing time depth, derivation, and social activities in Northwest pithouse villages, and adds information regarding tool kits, and activities at a seasonally utilized site early in the first millennium B.C. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

In 1913 thirty dairy farmers formed the Fraser Valley Milk Producers’ Association, an organization which began operation in 1917 and became one of the most successful cooperatives in North America. The compact nature of the Fraser Valley was a geographic advantage which laid the basis for the success of the Association. The river itself, the railways, and the roads which were built slowly and at great cost, provided transportation which unified the Valley. The insatiable Cariboo markets enabled pioneer farmers to become well established. The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway opened wider markets which dairymen were able to take advantage of after the creameries became established. The phenomenal growth of Vancouver in the first decade of the twentieth century provided a fluid market which was more lucrative. This market became accessible to farmers as far away as the Chilliwack Valley when the B.C. Electric Railway line was completed in 1910. Intense competition on the fluid market and some of the practices of milk dealers forced the farmers to unite in order to achieve orderly marketing. The thirty men who initiated the organization in 1913 were, on the whole, prosperous, ambitious men in the prime of life, who believed that the fertile land of the Fraser Valley could provide wealth just as the river had given up gold to the first comers. Most of them had been engaged in farmers' associations or cooperative ventures and it was on the solid foundation of these groups that the Fraser Valley Milk Producers' Association began. It was a merging of established cooperatives rather than a newly created organization. The Association began operation during a period of war-time prosperity. Its outstanding initial success convinced many in the Valley of the value of the Cooperative. This laid the basis for the strong loyalty of the membership which, along with firm and able leadership, contributed to the success of the F.V.M.P.A. When orderly marketing could not be achieved through voluntary action, the Cooperative members attempted to gain marketing legislation which would equalize the returns from the fluid market. The Dairy Products Sales Adjustment Act was in effect throughout 1930. During this time Cooperative members received better returns than previously. This strengthened the loyalty of the membership as the struggle to gain legislation continued. Geographic advantage, the high quality of the leadership and the strong loyalty of the membership help to explain the success of the Cooperative, but the effect of that success is also worth consideration. The Association controlled production of the milk shipped by its members, preventing a surplus on the fluid market through the establishment of manufacturing plants. The many bitter battles fought in the Valley were between the Cooperative, which struggled to retain for its members the advantages of the stable market their joint action had created, and those who sought to gain control of the fluid market, but who, in the name of free enterprise, refused to share the cost of stabilizing it. The dramatic struggle culminated with the passage of the Milk Industry Act in 1956, but the fact that the Fraser Valley Milk Producers' Association had survived, prevented complete disruption of the milk market through the long, difficult years and made the impact, of the depression, severe though it was, less disastrous than it might otherwise have been. Though it protected some who were running uneconomic farms, the Cooperative enabled many to adapt to the constant demands for steadily increasing efficiency as agriculture developed rapidly from bush farming to a complex agro-industry. The cooperative nature of the Association and the structure of the organization with its locals, and its central directorate elected by the membership, gave a grass roots control which involved every member in decision making (but did not prevent control over the membership by skilful leaders) and thus absorbed some of the unrest created by adverse economic conditions and prevented alienation to a considerable extent. Many in the Valley had reason to be proud of the success of the Fraser Valley Milk Producers' Association: many more to be grateful for it. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

Domestic sheep farmers in the lower Fraser Valley (L.F.V.) had reported increasing losses of sheep to coyote (Canis latrans) and dog (C. familiaris) predation. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine if management and geographic factors predispose sheep farms to coyote and dog predation; (2) to assess the relative impact of coyote and dog predation on the L.F.V. sheep population; (3) to record basic attributes of coyote biology (taxonomy, reproduction, food habits, home range, movements, activity patterns, and predatory behaviour); (4) to provide practical and economical recommendations to reduce or prevent coyote and dog predation on sheep in the L.F.V. One hundred and twelve sheep farmers were interviewed over three years, 1979 to 1981. Farms which lost sheep to coyotes characteristically had relatively large flocks (>50 ewes) on large fields (4+ ha), did not confine sheep at night, and either buried or left sheep carcasses exposed. There were no common factors among farms which lost sheep to dogs. Predation accounted for 28.2% of all mortality and 2.4% of the total population sampled. Coyotes killed 69.7% and 74.7% of all ewes and lambs lost to predators. An average of 24.3% of the farms lost sheep to coyotes and dogs each year. However, 55.2% of the farms which lost sheep to coyotes did so in two or three consecutive years compared to 17.4% of farms which lost sheep to dogs. Coyotes in the L.F.V. were similar in most biological aspects studied to other coyote populations in North America. The only exception was that small rodents, primarily Microtus townsendi composed over 70% (scat volume) of their diet, a proportion higher than in other areas. Domestic livestock (mostly poultry carrion) comprised only 4.3% of the diet, sheep only 0.2%. I concluded that in the rural-urban L.F.V. interface, prevention of coyote predation (and secondarily dog predation) on hobby farms is largely a matter of management. The most effective and economical solution is to provide predator-proof enclosures for night confinement of sheep because coyotes were most active at night. This method could be further enhanced by removing livestock carcasses off the farm or by burying and liming them to avoid attracting coyotes to the farm vicinity. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

A major contributor to global warming is the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Land use management may be a means to countering global warming by increasing the carbon sink potential. Terrestrial carbon budgets were prepared for forested (Douglas-fir), agricultural (hay), and urban sites in Abbotsford, B.C. The results indicate that the greatest amount of carbon is stored in the forested sites, followed by the hay sites, with the lowest amount in the urban sites. To maximize carbon in storage the use of trees either as forests or in pockets within the landscape is the best option. To simulate and to expand the utility of these carbon budgets, the study used the CENTURY model. The results of the simulations indicate that forests are a major carbon sink as was found earlier. Carbon storage under hay is at a relative steady state, except during the cultivation years when it becomes a carbon source. Lawn in an urban setting is a carbon source. The results of the simulations suggest that management can be used to increase the carbon sink. It also indicates that soils are a major carbon pool representing 20% of the forest, 90% of the hay, and 95% of the lawn budgets. For the general public and decision-makers to become more aware of the impact of changing land use on carbon storage, at the lot, local, or regional levels, they require a userfriendly decision-making tool. A derivative of the CENTURY model, CLU (for CENTURY Land Use), was developed. It was designed to be user-friendly and at the same time maintain the integrity of the parent model. It allows the user to input site-specific data and obtain site related output carbon data on a component basis, which can be used to assess how a potential change in land use or management may affect the amount of carbon in storage. The model should be suitable as a research tool and for planning and educational purposes. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

Intensive poultry production in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia has resulted in large quantities of poultry manure being spread on limited land space. This manure is spread on land situated above the Abbotsford aquifer. Due to the high amount of nitrogen and phosphorus present in poultry manure, there is a danger of these nutrients leaching into the groundwater of the aquifer as nitrates. High levels of nitrates in drinking water have been linked to various health hazards such as Methemoglobinaemia, stomach cancer, and gastric cancer. The leaching problem is further compounded by the fact that the region has porous soils, a high water table, and very high annual rainfall. This problem was addressed by analyzing several dietary treatments having varying levels of crude protein from a high of 25% CP (crude protein) to a low of 18% CP and supplemented with the commercial amino acids L-LYS , DL-MET , L-THR, and L-TRY . A linear programming model was used to determine the least cost diet from the various dietary treatments. The most efficient dietary treatment was then identified by Manure disposal options such as storage, land application, and transportation were also considered along with their associated costs. Linear programming was used to identify the least cost manure disposal strategy complying with British Columbia environmental regulations by using a combination of the three options. The results from the two models above were then combined to identify the optimum manure management strategy for a poultry farm in the Fraser valley complying with environmental regulations. The results indicate that diets containing lower levels of crude protein and supplemented with amino acids costs less than those containing higher levels of crude protein. These diets perform better because the nitrogen in the protein is utilized more efficiently thereby resulting in less nitrogen excretion in the manure. Manure that contains low amounts of nitrogen costs less to dispose than that having high amounts of nitrogen. Use of diets containing low levels of crude protein and supplementing them with commercial amino acids can lower the costs of poultry farmers significantly while complying with environmental regulations.

This thesis considers the spread of coyotes into the Fraser Valley from an historical/geographical perspective. Using the models of Coyote and Canis latrans, it follows coyotes from their traditional range in Nlha7kapmx territory into the Fraser Valley and eventually the city of Vancouver. In doing so, it examines both changing landscapes and changing perceptions of predators over the past 125 years. In much the same way as it has distinguished "wilderness" from "civilization," the settler imagination has separated the paths, patterns, and places of wildlife from those of human settlement. This thesis introduces an animal who has persistently challenged those boundaries. In Nlha7kapmx traditions, Coyote is a transgressive character, a clever opportunist, a powerful transformer, and an irrepressible trickster who may be killed repeatedly but always revives. These same qualities can be seen in scientific descriptions of coyotes. The ways of coyotes — their adaptability, intelligence, and social geography ~ have helped them withstand persecution and inhabit new environments. Coyotes appear in places we do not expect, and, as predators, in places that we actively defend from their presence. Coyotes were first reported in the Fraser Valley in 1892, following the completion of the railway and the commencement of agricultural settlement. Today they are commonly seen throughout the region. Their presence has been the object of successive campaigns to exterminate, control, and, eventually, co-exist with them. From the bounty system to widespread poisoning and the designation of "problem animals," these efforts have been shaped by changing understandings of the place of wildlife in relationship to settlement, and the complex geographies of coyotes themselves. This thesis argues that coyote control has been a losing battle: an attempt to claim space from a species that thrives in the margins; an effort to exterminate quintessential survivors. The evolution of coyote control in B.C. is best understood as a progressive concession of space.

The Sto:lo people face many challenges and issues as they create a government and justice system based on prior ways of governance and justice. Some of these challenges and issues include the documenting and synthesizing of current understanding of judicial practices, establishing principles of membership or citizenship, legitimizing their own institutions, and establishing the scope and mandate of the House of Justice. The Sto:lo people are deciding what they want their justice system to look like. They face a multitude of existing judicial models and the importation of legal practices from elsewhere. Members of the Sto:lo Nation negotiate their way through various levels of federal and provincial government bureaucracy as they form relationships with these government bodies and establish their place among them. Yet, Sto:lo members must also temper their own bureaucratic growth with the need to remain flexible and responsive to the needs of the community. Current understandings of Sto:lo justice practice frame the expectations the Sto:lo people have of their own justice system. Discursive features of previous justice practices and contemporary Sto:lo issues include the importance of elders in community decision making, the importance of community and cohesion, the strength of the family and the desire to settle problems internally without external interference, the importance of sharing resources, and the Sto:lo's connection to the spiritual world. In this paper I study the inception and growth of Sto:lo nationhood, and the creation of one of the Sto:lo Nation's emerging institutions, the House of Justice. I refer to the ethnonationalist literature of Benedict Anderson, Stanley J. Tambiah and John L. Comaroff Anderson's "imagined community" is the central metaphor for this paper.