Intensive poultry production in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia has resulted in large quantities of poultry manure being spread on limited land space. This manure is spread on land situated above the Abbotsford aquifer. Due to the high amount of nitrogen and phosphorus present in poultry manure, there is a danger of these nutrients leaching into the groundwater of the aquifer as nitrates. High levels of nitrates in drinking water have been linked to various health hazards such as Methemoglobinaemia, stomach cancer, and gastric cancer. The leaching problem is further compounded by the fact that the region has porous soils, a high water table, and very high annual rainfall. This problem was addressed by analyzing several dietary treatments having varying levels of crude protein from a high of 25% CP (crude protein) to a low of 18% CP and supplemented with the commercial amino acids L-LYS , DL-MET , L-THR, and L-TRY . A linear programming model was used to determine the least cost diet from the various dietary treatments. The most efficient dietary treatment was then identified by Manure disposal options such as storage, land application, and transportation were also considered along with their associated costs. Linear programming was used to identify the least cost manure disposal strategy complying with British Columbia environmental regulations by using a combination of the three options. The results from the two models above were then combined to identify the optimum manure management strategy for a poultry farm in the Fraser valley complying with environmental regulations. The results indicate that diets containing lower levels of crude protein and supplemented with amino acids costs less than those containing higher levels of crude protein. These diets perform better because the nitrogen in the protein is utilized more efficiently thereby resulting in less nitrogen excretion in the manure. Manure that contains low amounts of nitrogen costs less to dispose than that having high amounts of nitrogen. Use of diets containing low levels of crude protein and supplementing them with commercial amino acids can lower the costs of poultry farmers significantly while complying with environmental regulations. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

In the summer of 1967, dipole arrays were used to make deep resistivity soundings in the Fraser Valley of British Columbia. The large dipole moment of the input dipole (270 amp x 37 km) allowed input-to-measuring dipole spacings as great as 100 km. Calculations show that Georgia Strait, which is spanned by the input dipole, should have little effect on layered earth potentials for the dipole to dipole spacings used in this survey. A three-layer model with a resistive second layer (transverse resistance approximately 3000 times that of the upper layer) agrees well with the data. A more complicated four-layer model can be devised by using data from deep wells in the area. Interpretation of well and sounding data indicates that 500 m of conductive ocean and ocean sediments overlie 4-5 km of Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and 2 km of granitic rock. A conducting layer underlying the granitic rock may be the result of water saturation of the rocks at these depths. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

An analysis of air quality data from British Columbia has identified the Lower Mainland and surrounding rural areas as one of the regions in Canada where the Canadian Maximum Acceptable Air Quality Objective of 0.082 ppm ozone for one hour is frequently exceeded. Ozone at this level has the potential for affecting crops in the Fraser Valley. Field experiments were undertaken to attempt to evaluate the effect of randomly fluctuating levels of ozone on the yield of two cultivars each of Brassica oleracea L. (broccoli), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (bean), Pisum sativum L. (pea), Daucus carota L. (carrot) in 1985 and on one cultivar each of Solanum tuberosum L. (potato) and Pisum sativum L. (pea) in 1986, using a zonal air pollution system. As there is no current consensus regarding the most appropriate numerical expression of pollutant exposure to use in vegetation response studies, a comparison of various exposure terms was also undertaken. Ozone was added in various proportions to ambient levels between 0700 and 2100 hours (PDT) throughout the growing season. Three levels of ozone addition were used in 1985 and 12 in 1986. In 1985, treatments were assigned to three blocks over which ozone was released. Each block was supplied with different total amounts of supplementary ozone, a fourth block serving as an ambient air control. In 1986, ozone treatments were randomly assigned to four sub-plots on each of the three blocks over which ozone was released, with each block receiving the same total amount of supplementary ozone. Different treatments were achieved by each sub-plot being subject to different rates of release and degrees of mixing. For both years the ozone concentration distributions achieved over the season were approximately log-normal. Additional analysis of the air quality data from the ambient air plot found other types of skewed distributions such as the three parameter Weibull, three parameter gamma and Johnsons SB (four parameter log-normal) provided better descriptions of the data. The distribution providing the best fit depended on the concentration averaging time, the daily time span over which the ozone concentrations are analyzed and the selection criterion used. In 1985, field observations indicated that there were numerous plot to plot differences for disease and soil factors, which were confounded with the ozone treatments applied. Without true replication of the treatments, differentiation between the effects due to ozone and those from abiotic and biotic causes was not possible, and hence no clear conclusions concerning ozone response could be drawn. In 1986, without the confounding of ozone and plot location, significant linear reductions in yield were found for pea and pod fresh weight using the number of days on which the concentration exceeded 25 ppb, during the vegetative growing period (D25²). A significant linear reduction in fresh potato tuber weight was found using the geometric mean of all geometric mean ozone concentrations computed between 1200 and 1259-h for the season (GH12) as the exposure statistic. A significant multiple linear regression was found for pea fresh weight using the D25¹, statistic together with the number of occurrences in which the concentration exceeded 25 ppb for two, three and four consecutive hours (2C25, 3C25 and 4C25 respectively) in an episode; and for pod fresh weight using D25, 2C25 and 3C25 as independent variates. From the results presented it seems clear that ozone at the concentrations dispensed here would have a significant negative impact on crops grown in the Fraser Valley. Based on the 1986 experiment the best case estimate indicates that yield reductions of 28% could be expected for peas and potatoes at 37 ppb ozone (expressed as the season-long 7-h mean, M7). The exposure statistics used in the present study in comparison with the season-long 7 and 12 hour means provided good fits with the data. They are easily calculated from ambient air quality data and present attractive alternatives to those exposure statistics currently in use, for assessing the potential impact of ozone on crops in the Fraser Valley and for use in the setting of air quality standards. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The Sto:lo people face many challenges and issues as they create a government and justice system based on prior ways of governance and justice. Some of these challenges and issues include the documenting and synthesizing of current understanding of judicial practices, establishing principles of membership or citizenship, legitimizing their own institutions, and establishing the scope and mandate of the House of Justice. The Sto:lo people are deciding what they want their justice system to look like. They face a multitude of existing judicial models and the importation of legal practices from elsewhere. Members of the Sto:lo Nation negotiate their way through various levels of federal and provincial government bureaucracy as they form relationships with these government bodies and establish their place among them. Yet, Sto:lo members must also temper their own bureaucratic growth with the need to remain flexible and responsive to the needs of the community. Current understandings of Sto:lo justice practice frame the expectations the Sto:lo people have of their own justice system. Discursive features of previous justice practices and contemporary Sto:lo issues include the importance of elders in community decision making, the importance of community and cohesion, the strength of the family and the desire to settle problems internally without external interference, the importance of sharing resources, and the Sto:lo's connection to the spiritual world. In this paper I study the inception and growth of Sto:lo nationhood, and the creation of one of the Sto:lo Nation's emerging institutions, the House of Justice. I refer to the ethnonationalist literature of Benedict Anderson, Stanley J. Tambiah and John L. Comaroff Anderson's "imagined community" is the central metaphor for this paper. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis considers the spread of coyotes into the Fraser Valley from an historical/geographical perspective. Using the models of Coyote and Canis latrans, it follows coyotes from their traditional range in Nlha7kapmx territory into the Fraser Valley and eventually the city of Vancouver. In doing so, it examines both changing landscapes and changing perceptions of predators over the past 125 years. In much the same way as it has distinguished "wilderness" from "civilization," the settler imagination has separated the paths, patterns, and places of wildlife from those of human settlement. This thesis introduces an animal who has persistently challenged those boundaries. In Nlha7kapmx traditions, Coyote is a transgressive character, a clever opportunist, a powerful transformer, and an irrepressible trickster who may be killed repeatedly but always revives. These same qualities can be seen in scientific descriptions of coyotes. The ways of coyotes — their adaptability, intelligence, and social geography ~ have helped them withstand persecution and inhabit new environments. Coyotes appear in places we do not expect, and, as predators, in places that we actively defend from their presence. Coyotes were first reported in the Fraser Valley in 1892, following the completion of the railway and the commencement of agricultural settlement. Today they are commonly seen throughout the region. Their presence has been the object of successive campaigns to exterminate, control, and, eventually, co-exist with them. From the bounty system to widespread poisoning and the designation of "problem animals," these efforts have been shaped by changing understandings of the place of wildlife in relationship to settlement, and the complex geographies of coyotes themselves. This thesis argues that coyote control has been a losing battle: an attempt to claim space from a species that thrives in the margins; an effort to exterminate quintessential survivors. The evolution of coyote control in B.C. is best understood as a progressive concession of space. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Surface deposition is an important sink for tropospheric ozone. The rate of ozone deposition may be measured by measuring the downward flux of ozone in the atmospheric surface-layer. This thesis presents eddy correlation measurements of ozone fluxes, taken on eight days in August, 1994, at a grassland site located in the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. Surface resistances to ozone deposition were calculated from the flux measurements. Much of the variability in measured surface resistances was found to be attributable to variations in ambient light levels and in the degree of moisture stress at the site. Measurements of surface resistance from this site agreed quite well with other measurements of ozone deposition to grassland surfaces. Measured surface resistances were compared to surface resistances calculated using the Wesely (1989) parameterization (W89) for surface resistance. W89 underestimated surface resistance, particularly in the mid afternoon and early evening. This was attributed to the model's neglect of the effects of water stress on stomatal resistance, as well as to a low value for resistance to ground surface deposition in the model. The eddy correlation fluxes were compared to ozone fluxes derived using an assumption of cospectral similarity between ozone and heat flux and to ozone fluxes measured using the variance method and the gradient method. The cospectral similarity method worked well and allowed a considerable relaxation of the sampling speed requirements of the eddy correlation method. The variance method produced biased flux measurements due to high frequency noise from the ozone sensor. Flux measurements using the gradient method had a great deal of scatter, due to inaccuracies in the measurement of gradients.

Surface deposition is an important sink for tropospheric ozone. The rate of ozone deposition may be measured by measuring the downward flux of ozone in the atmospheric surface-layer. This thesis presents eddy correlation measurements of ozone fluxes, taken on eight days in August, 1994, at a grassland site located in the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. Surface resistances to ozone deposition were calculated from the flux measurements. Much of the variability in measured surface resistances was found to be attributable to variations in ambient light levels and in the degree of moisture stress at the site. Measurements of surface resistance from this site agreed quite well with other measurements of ozone deposition to grassland surfaces. Measured surface resistances were compared to surface resistances calculated using the Wesely (1989) parameterization (W89) for surface resistance. W89 underestimated surface resistance, particularly in the mid afternoon and early evening. This was attributed to the model's neglect of the effects of water stress on stomatal resistance, as well as to a low value for resistance to ground surface deposition in the model. The eddy correlation fluxes were compared to ozone fluxes derived using an assumption of cospectral similarity between ozone and heat flux and to ozone fluxes measured using the variance method and the gradient method. The cospectral similarity method worked well and allowed a considerable relaxation of the sampling speed requirements of the eddy correlation method. The variance method produced biased flux measurements due to high frequency noise from the ozone sensor. Flux measurements using the gradient method had a great deal of scatter, due to inaccuracies in the measurement of gradients. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

This study is the second in a series of rural sociological studies relevant to the adoption of innovations by farmers in the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. The adoption performance of strawberry growers, as measured by an adoption score computed for each respondent, was used for classifying the individuals into adopter categories. This classification was then used as the basis for further analysis of: (1) the relationship between adoption and socio-economic characteristics, (2) the relationship between ethnicity and adoption, (3) the differential use of information sources, (4) the innovation response state, (5) reasons for delay in the adoption process and for rejection. The level of adoption, as indicated by four adopter categories, correlated positively and significantly with social participation, size of farm, acreage in strawberry, gross income from agriculture, strawberry, and from other agricultural enterprises; the amount of farm labour employed for harvesting, and estimated farm value. Age was negatively correlated with adoption. There was no significant relationship with a number of other variables studied. Extension contact was the most important single variable which showed a significant positive association with adoption. The relationship was strongest for personal contact with the District Horticulturist. A relatively high level of practice adoption is indicated by an average of 4.12 adoptions from the total of 6 innovations studied. Characteristics of the innovation accounted for almost one-half of the reasons for delay, and about one-third for rejection. Situational factors, relevant to the particular circumstances of the respondents, were the reasons given most frequently, especially among the early adopters. Ethnic groupings included Mennonites, Japanese and "Other" respondents. Differences were significant for 16 socio-economic characteristics, besides differential levels of extension contact. Japanese, who were the most experienced growers, were characterized by the lowest levels of adoption performance and extension contact. Mennonite growers were the least educated and were intermediate in practice adoption. Information sources were classified into two categories and personal sources were the most frequently used by all adopter categories in both. When classified by Origin, Government sources were second in importance, followed by Commercial and Farm Organization. When classified by the Nature of the Activity, on the other hand, the order of importance was individual instructional, instructional group and mass media. The study included an analysis of the patterns of interpersonal communication among the growers, both in their search for advice and in informal visiting on a friendship basis. Opinion leaders, identified by sociometric procedures, were mostly early adopters. Sociometric choices extended predominantly to growers in higher adopter categories, or to others at the same level of adoption. There were no dyadic relationships extending from Japanese respondents to other ethnic groups. Selection by other ethnic groups among themselves also did not exceed 30 per cent in any instance. The distribution of sociometric choices either by adopter category or ethnic origin were statistically significant. Interpersonal communication among growers was also largely confined to growers in the community network. Opinion leadership was positively associated with high socio-economic status, including high social participation, and the ability to keep informed on aspects of their commercial enterprise from sources close to the origin of new information. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

An understanding of runoff generation is a requirement for efficient erosion control and land management practices. This research is designed to investigate the processes by which runoff occurs on a Whatcom soil at an upland site in the Lower Fraser Valley. The objectives of this study are to summarize water erosion measurements, to determine soil hydraulic properties, to predict infiltration for typical rainstorms and to determine the mechanism of runoff generation. Rill, interrill and rainsplash measurements, and previous erosion measurements made at the study site are used to qualitatively assess the magnitude of water erosion. Soil loss is dominated by rill erosion and erosion rates are greatest from November to January. Runoff coefficients are relatively low (<26%), but erosion rates are anticipated to be in excess of 35-45 t ha⁻¹yr⁻¹. Soil hydraulic properties are measured using a low tension absorption technique described by Clothier and White (1981). The sorptivity tube device provides a simple method for obtaining S, λ* and K₋₂ Measured values of i and x* depend on t¹′² as expected from the constant-concentration absorption theory. Soil hydraulic variables and constant-concentration absorption theory are used to determine the soil-water diffusivity characteristics. Measured D(θ) functions for the field varied widely in a and b, especially for the lower horizons. The Van Genuchten (1980) θ(h) expression provides a good fit to the water retention data. D(θ) functions predicted from the soil-water retention curves and the conductivity at satiation are at least 1-2 orders of magnitude greater than the measured functions. Hysteresis effects may account for a 1 order of magnitude increase in D(θ), but the predictions are poor without matching at D(θ₅). The measured hydraulic properties are used to predict infiltration, runoff and drainage. Constant-flux infiltration theory is used to model soil moisture profiles for various rainfall events. High field moisture contents necessitate the inclusion of gravity effects during infiltration. Rainfall, runoff and soil loss measurements at the Mahal farm indicate that rainfall intensities <10 mm h⁻¹ cause considerable runoff and erosion. For rainfall intensities known to cause runoff and erosion, runoff is not predicted for most Ap horizon cores. Infiltration may be restricted at some sites by the lower horizon but runoff is not predicted at many sites. To evaluated soil moisture conditions between rainfall events, drainage is estimated from a unit gradient model. A rapid decrease in θ between rainfall events predicted by the unit gradient model, but θ measured at the Mahal farm suggests limited drainage between rainfall events. Rainfall, runoff and soil loss measurements suggest that factors other than those measured are contributing to the runoff observed in the field. Compaction, surface sealing and subsurface seepage may be factors influencing runoff and moisture conditions in the field. The high moisture contents observed in the field suggest the water table is perching on a layer of lower conductivity which in consistent with Dunne runoff. However, the measured infiltrabilities suggest Hortonian runoff and the resultes of the thesis are not conclusive with respect to the mechanism of runoff generation. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Since the 1970s, historians of British Columbia representing various ideological schools and methodological approaches have debated the role of race in the provinces history. Many of the earlier works discussed whether race or class was the primary determinant in social relations while more recent works have argued that factors such as race, class, and gender combined in different ways and in different situations to inform group interactions. However, the application of these terms in describing aspects of the thoughts and actions of non-Western peoples can be problematic. This thesis attempts to approach the question of race and its role in British Columbias past from the perspective of the Indigenous population of the Lower Fraser River watershed from 1828 (the establishment of the first Hudsons Bay Company post on the Fraser River) to the 1920s, examining shifting notions of the way Aboriginal epistemologies have conceived of otherness through contact between Stó:lõ people and Euro-Canadian and -American, Hawaiian, Chinese, and Japanese immigrants. The main contention is that, contrary to the historiographys depictions of unified and static interactions with newcomers, Stó:lõ people held complex and dynamic notions of otherness when newcomers arrived with the fur trade, and that such concepts informed interactions with people from throughout the Pacific. Numerous factors informed the ways in which Stó:lõ people approached and engaged in relationships with newcomers, but the strongest ones originated in Stó:lõ cultural and historical understanding of others rather than in the racial ideas of Euro-Canadians. <p>Following a discussion of the historiography of race relations and Native-Newcomer interactions in British Columbia, this thesis examines relationships during the fur trade between Hawaiian men employed at Fort Langley and Kwantlen people; the ways in which Stó:lõ people grouped the miners who came to the Fraser Canyon in 1858; Stó:lõ peoples interactions with Chinese immigrants from the 1860s through the 1880s; and the ways in which the presence of Japanese and Chinese Canadians influenced how Stó:lõ leaders articulated their claims to rights and title in the first decades of the twentieth century. It concludes that Aboriginal relations with non-Europeans took a different path than relations with Europeans. Several factors contributed to the branching of paths, including pre-contact views of <i> outsiders</i>, kinship ties in the fur trade, economic competition, and the unsettled Indian Land Question. Moreover, the different relationships must be seen as affecting the other, making understanding the nature of Aboriginal associations with non-Europeans an important part of making sense of aspects of Aboriginal relations with Europeans.