LL.M. / This study conducts an analysis of the right to freedom of religion in South Africa. The historical development of the right is discussed. Attention is also given to the interpretation of the right and the legal definition of the term “religion”. The bearers of the right, namely natural persons, juristic persons and other associations, are also highlighted; as well as the duties imposed by the right to freedom of religion. However, the focal point of the study is the ambit and content of the right. Particular attention is given in this regard to the components of sections 15(1) to (3). The conclusion is reached that the right to freedom of religion consists of freedom of autonomy; freedom of choice; freedom of observance; freedom of teaching; and freedom to propagate a religion or denomination. The limitation of the right is also considered, in particular the meaning of the general limitation provision, as well as the relevant factors to be reviewed and the specific limitation provisions that may come into play.

Thesis (LLD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The central issue which is considered in this thesis is the meaning of the constitutional guarantees of religious rights and freedoms in South Africa. In other words, it is concerned with the functions of the state, through its laws or conduct, in respect of religion and with its relationship towards the institutional church or religious community. It is argued that religious freedom is, in fact, a bundle of rights and freedoms. The "essential rights and freedoms of religion" which constitute this "bundle" are identified in the context of the historical development of religious rights. It is shown that religious rights theories have developed in the West which include concepts of freedom of conscience, the right to freely exercise religion, accommodation of pluralism of a confessional and institutional nature, equality of all religions before the law, nondiscrimination on the grounds offaith, institutional separation of church and state and some separation of state (or law) and religion. It is maintained that no single principle could by itself guarantee religious freedom and that these rights and freedoms are mutually. supportive of and mutually subservient to the highest goal of guaranteeing religious freedom. These essential rights and freedoms are therefore treated as constituting minimum standards for the protection of religious freedom and it is argued that religious freedom as protected in the South African Constitution should be interpreted to incorporate these multiple principles. It is shown that, prior to the promulgation of the interim Constitution the essential rights and freedoms of religion were not adequately protected in South Africa and that the constitutional entrenchment of these essential religious rights was necessitated by various factors in the preconstitutional South African society. The position with regard to religious rights and freedoms in post-Constitutional South Africa is considered by briefly sketching the broader constitutional context and by assessing the constitutional clauses protecting religious rights to determine whether the essential rights are protected. The religious rights provisions in the Constitution are analysed in detail in order to determine how they should be interpreted and implemented to ensure adequate protection of the essential rights and freedoms of religion in South Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die sentrale vraagstuk wat in hierdie proefskrif ondersoek word is die betekenis van godsdiensregte en vryhede wat in die Grondwet verskans word. Dit ondersoek die funksie van die staat, hetsy deur wetgewing of staatsoptrede, ten opsigte van godsdiens en ten opsigte van kerke of godsdiensgroepe. Daar word geargumenteer dat godsdiensregte inderdaad uit 'n aantal regte, oftewel, 'n bondel regte, bestaan. Die essensiële regte en vryhede van godsdiens wat hierdie bondelopmaak word geïdentifiseer met verwysing na die historiese ontwikkeling van godsdiensregte. Teorieë van godsdiensregte het in die Weste ontwikkel wat die volgende essensiële regte en vryhede insluit: vryheid van gewete, die reg om godsdiens vrylik te beoefen, akkommodasie van pluralisme, gelykheid van alle godsdienste en nie-diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens, institusionele skeiding van kerk en staat en gedeeltelike skeiding van staat en godsdiens. Die argument lui verder dat 'n enkele beginsel nie opsigself godsdiensvryheid kan waarborg nie en dat hierdie regte en vryhede mekaar wedersyds ondersteun en tesame die doel van godsdiensvryheid dien. Die essensiële regte en vryhede van godsdiens word daarom behandel as minimum standaarde vir die beskerming van godsdiensvryheid en daar word 'n saak uitgemaak dat godsdiensvryheid in die Suid-Afrikaanse Grondwet geïnterpreteer behoort te word as synde hierdie veelvuldige beginsels in te sluit. Die proefskriftoon dat die essensiele regte en vryhede nie voor die inwerkingtreding van die interim Grondwet in Suid-Afrika genoegsame beskerming geniet het nie en dat die konstitusionele verskansing daarvan deur verskeie faktore in die pre-konstitusionele Suid- Afrika genoodsaak is. Die posisie na die inwerkingtreding van die Grondwet word geëvalueer deur kortliks die breë grondwetlike konteks te skets en vas te stelof die artikels in die Grondwet wat met godsdiens handel, inderdaad die essensiele regte en vryhede van godsdiens beskerm. Hierdie artikels word in diepte geanaliseer ten einde te bepaal hoe hulle geïnterpreteer en geïmplementeer behoort te word ten einde die essensiele godsdiensregte en vryhede genoegsaam te beskerm.

Submitted in compliance with the requirements for the Doctor’s Degree in Language Practice, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Even after political liberation in South Africa, a mismatch exists between the principles of freedom of religious observance taught in Religion Education and the actual religious observances in public schools. Anglican hymns, prayers and observances are still being used in schools where the religious ethos has changed from one of Christianity to include Hinduism, Islam and Judaism, as well as Shembe and Zionist religions. The Draft Policy on Religion Education stipulates that there should be a distinction between home religions and the school’s official religious instruction. School religious observances, particularly observances which reflect the oppressive nature of past colonial impositions, should not give offence to learners from other religious denominations, or belittle their own practices. This thesis investigates the hegemonic influence of colonial religious observances and their possible effect on school populations. Within a critical linguistic approach, which explores the ways in which language both sets in place and reflects the relations of power implicit in social functioning, a critical discourse analysis was carried out on current and topical media texts reporting on contentious issues involving religious observances in schools. Community members were also consulted by means of surveys and interviews so as to provide an overview of the social context of the wider community within which the schools were situated. The resulting data could then be used to triangulate data obtained from the discourse analysis, and either confirm, modify or challenge the latter. The results suggest that, not only is there a strong hegemonic influence present in schools, as a result of the lingering vestiges of traditional colonial Christianity, but that modern Christian movements are also beginning to exert a persuasive influence on non-Christian populations. The issue of religious observance in schools is a highly complex and potentially controversial issue, but one which merits study in view of the fact that the stakeholders’ right to freedom of religious observance may be violated on a daily basis. / D

This study examines the topic of the interaction of children’s rights, education rights and freedom of religion in South African schools from a legal perspective. It comprises of a discussion on the historical development of religion in South African schools; South Africa’s international obligations with regards to children’s rights, education rights and freedom of religion and the South African substantive law pertaining to children rights, education and freedom of religion as impacting on legal issues pertaining to religion in schools. The study utilises a desktop approach, which comprises of a wide range of legal and other literary sources, international instruments, statutes and case law on children’s rights, education rights and freedom of religion. Importantly, it highlights the integral connection between these aforementioned rights when dealing with issues pertaining to religion in schools. This thesis illustrates that much of the historical development of religion in schools took place without consideration of children’s rights, or more particularly, the best interests of the learners. Instead, (a particular brand of) religious beliefs were promoted in education above other religions and the well-being of school-children. Furthermore, despite the introduction of specific children’s rights into the Constitution, this thesis emphasises that the rights of children have still not been recognised sufficiently in education laws and policies. It is submitted that children’s rights have a paramount and practical role to play in matters pertaining to religion in South African schools. Consequently, it is recommended that children’s rights, more particularly the best interests of the child principle, should be expressly introduced into education legislation and policies. This will create legal obligations for school administrators and SGBs on the inclusion of children’s rights in religious exemption procedures. Furthermore, it is recommended that national guidelines on religious/cultural exemptions (which incorporate children’s rights) be developed which will set legal parameters for the handling of religious/cultural exemption procedures in schools. This thesis also argues against the interpretation that the right to establish private schools includes the right to require religious conformity from non-adherent learners by way of a complete waiver of their religious freedom. Despite the importance of respecting the right of religious communities to protect and preserve their faith in private schools, it is submitted that this right cannot be exercised without regard for the religious freedom, dignity and best interests of non-adherent children. As a result, it is submitted that the waiver of the freedom of religion of non-adherent children is not consistent with the values which South African society reveres and therefore cannot be enforced. This thesis suggests that there is a way for the rights of private schools and the rights of non-adherent children to co-exist in harmony through the application of the reasonable accommodation principle in private schools. Reasonable accommodation of different faiths teaches religious tolerance to leaners in private schools and ensures that they are prepared to grapple with the religious diversity that they will inevitably face outside of the school environment. It is submitted that the enforcement of reasonable accommodation in private schools is to the benefit of all learners in private schools and to South African society in general. Moreover, this study questions and analyses the state’s provision of compulsory religion education in public schools through the National Policy on Religion and Education. A theoretical distinction is made between religion education and religious instruction in the National Policy itself. Religious instruction refers to the teaching of specific religious beliefs. Religion education refers to the teaching about different religions and worldviews from an academic perspective. It is submitted that the National Policy is correct in removing religious instruction from public schools as this would not be in accordance with freedom of religion or equality rights of learners who are not of the majority faith. It is submitted further that, although the provision of compulsory religion education in public schools impacts upon the freedom of religion of learners and their parents, (if taught correctly) it is a reasonable and justifiable limitation on freedom of religion in that it pursues the legitimate state goal of nation-building through the teaching of religious tolerance and “celebrating diversity” in schools. In light of South Africa’s history of religious discrimination, it must be recognised that the current position (although not problem- free) is a significant step forward in the protection of minority religious rights in South African schools. Despite this, it is submitted that there are numerous problems with the implementation of the National Policy that impact upon the dignity, equality and other rights of the learners concerned. These problems cannot be ignored since they impact upon the daily lives of school children. However, many of these problems can be minimised through more effective teacher training in this subject area. Accordingly, this thesis recommends that the current position be maintained as an acceptable compromise between the two extremes of providing religious instruction in one faith and removing religion education from public schools altogether. However, it emphasises that the state has to make a concerted effort to improve teacher training in this subject area in order to ensure that the objectives of the National Policy are carried out as envisaged. Furthermore, this thesis finds that certain provisions of the National Policy contain not only educational goals, but spiritual goals. Also in some instances, it is difficult to determine whether the religion education curriculum borders on being religious or not. In accordance with freedom of religion, it is submitted that the line between religion education and religious instruction must be clearly drawn in law and in practice. Consequently, the state must reconsider the National Policy and the corresponding religion education curriculum to ensure that they are aligned with the objectives of nation-building in all respects, meaning that any provisions or learning outcomes which have purely spiritual goals- must be amended or removed.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: One of the biggest revolutions in the United States, equal to the political revolution by which that country came into being, concerns a change in people's concept of God. In this context, freedom of religion came to playa fundamental role in society. In the United States religious freedom means that that country's central power should be completely neutral towards religion. This view is criticised as being the result of just another philosophical presupposition, called "secular individualism:" According to this view, state and church (or religion) are rigidly separated. Religion is viewed as an "irrational power", and should be limited to private life only. The South African Constitution did not follow this route. The state is not expected to be secular. It may even create circumstances conducive to the promotion of religion, although it should remain neutral towards specific religions. In South Africa religious freedom entails the acknowledgement of a group right, an important aspect of democracy, as long as the exercise of this right contributes towards tolerance and cultural openness. The premise is that the exercise of collective group values can play an important role to inspire people towards embracing human rights (which lie at the heart of the Constitution) as a core value of their social morality. I also deal with the problem of the limitation of this group right. Religious freedom further entails that the courts should not embark on judging in the theological and doctrinal conflicts of religious groups. However, churches cannot withdraw themselves from the ambit of the courts' authority, although this authority never allows for a decision about the internal dogmatic affairs of churches, It only applies to its administrative legal acts, particularly concerning the position of its paid officials. I further deal with the church as a legal entity, and confront the problem of the South African jurisprudence that treats the church as a mere voluntary organisation. The thesis is that the church is a legal entity sui generis. In other word, the church's legal status emanates from within, and is not bestowed upon it. From a legal point of view; the church should primarily be judged on the basis of its own ecclesiastical statutes. Thereafter I discuss the labour law position of ministers, referring to a number of labour court cases in which ministers were involved. The conclusion is that a minister is not an employee in the ordinary, legal sense of the word, but rather an independent contractor or atypical worker. The nature of his work is such that his divine calling not only encompasses his working life, but his whole life, in the service of God as his employer. As such, the minister's position is fundamentally different from that of an ordinary employee. I take the position that this view is the best way of expressing the church's uniqueness, constitutionally guaranteed, as well as the theological dimension of the church as a unique communal body. Against the minister's possible vulnerability towards exploitation and possible loss of his or her livelihood, he or she enjoys a constitutional as well as an administrative law guarantee. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Een van die grootste revolusies in die VSA soortgelyk aan die politieke revolusie waardeur Amerika tot stand gekom het, raak mense se Godsopvatting. In dié konteks speel die begrip godsdiensvryheid 'n fundamentele rol. In die VSA beteken godsdiensvryheid dat dié land se sentrale gesag heeltemal neutraal is teenoor godsdiens. Die kritiek hierop is dat so 'n opvatting voortkom uit 'n spesifieke filosofiese voorveronderstelling, naamlik "sekulêre individualisme". Hierin word staat en kerk (of godsdiens) rigied van mekaar geskei en die invloed van godsdiens as 'n "irrasionele mag" slegs tot die privaatlewe beperk. In Suid-Afrika volg die Grondwet nie dieselfde weg nie. Van die staat word nie verwag om sekulêr te wees nie. Dit mag selfs omstandighede skep om godsdiens te bevorder, alhoewel dit neutraal teenoor spesifieke godsdienste moet wees. Binne die Suid-Afrikaanse opset beteken godsdiensvryheid dus erkenning aan 'n groepsreg, wat 'n vername aspek van demokrasie is, solank die beoefening van dié groepsreg bydra tot toleransie en kulturele openheid. Die premisse is dat die beoefeninq van kollektiewe groepswaardes 'n belangrike rol kan speel om mense te inspireer om ook menseregte (die hart van die Grondwet) as 'n kernwaarde van hulle sosiale moraliteit te aanvaar. Die probleem is of beperkings op hierdie groepsreg ooit geoorloof sou wees. Godsdiensvryheid beteken verder dat die howe nie tot die beoordeling van die dogmatiese en teologiese twispunte van godsdienstige groepe mag toetree nie. Die kerk kan homself egter nie aan die gesag van die howe onttrek nie, alhoewel dié gesag nooit vir 'n beslissing oor die interne dogmatiese sake van die kerk geld nie, maar net vir sy administratief-regtelike handelinge - in die besonder waar dit die diensposisie van die kerk se betaalde ampsdraers aangaan. Ek handel verder oor die kerk as regspersoon en konfronteer die probleem dat die Suid-Afrikaanse regspraak die kerk bloot as 'n vrywillige organisasie sien. Die tese is dat die kerk 'n regspersoonlikheid sui generis is. Dus kom die kerklike regspersoonlikheid eintlik vanuit die kerk self voort. Regsvrae binne die kerk moet dus primêr aan die hand van sy eie statuut of Kerkorde beoordeel word. In die lig van die voorafgaande bespreek ek vervolgens die arbeidsregtelike posisie van die predikant na aanleiding van verskeie arbeidshofsake, en bevind dat hy of sy nie in 'n kontraktuele diensverhouding staan nie, maar eerder 'n onafhanklike kontrakteur of 'n a-tipiese werker is. Die aard van die predikant se werk as Godsgeroepene omvat nie net die arbeidslewe nie, maar die hele lewe wat hy of sy onder die beheer van sy of haar Werkgewer stel. Dit maak dat die predikant se posisie fundamenteel van dié van 'n gewone werknemer verskil. Ek handhaaf die posisie dat dié standpunt die beste gestalte gee aan die uniekheid van die kerk wat deur middel van grondwetlike godsdiensregte gewaarborg word, asook die teologiese dimensie van die kerk as 'n unieke samelewingsverband. In die aangesig van moontlike uitbuiting is die predikant se lewensonderhoud of "traktement" egter gewaarborg in soverre hy of sy 'n grondwetlike sowel as 'n administratief-regtelike aanspraak op 'n billike bedeling binne die kerk het.