Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The conversion of sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide is a process that has been intertwined with human culture and long as civilized man has existed. This fermentation process has been dominated by the micro-organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae and from providing ancient seafaring explorers of a non perishable beverage to equipping bakers with a raising agent to turn flour into bread; this organism with its fermentative potential, has formed an essential part of most societies. In more recent times, many industries still rely on this basic principle. The complexities and efficiencies of the conversion of sugar into its various fermentative byproducts have been studied and optimised extensively to meet the specific demands of industries. Depending on the raw material used as starting point, the major beneficiaries of the useful characteristics have been alcoholic beverage producers (wine, beer, and whiskey amongst others), bakers (bread leavening) and biofuel producers. One of the obstacles in fermentation optimisation is the sugar consumption preferences displayed by the organism used. S. cerevisiae can consume a wide variety of sugars. Depending on the complexities of its structures, it shows a preference for the simpler saccharides. The fermentation of certain more complex sugars is delayed and runs the risk of being left residually after fermentation. Many of the crops utilised in fermentation-based products contain large amounts of starch. During the starch degradation process many different forms of sugars are made available for fermentation. Improved fermentation of starch and its dextrin products would benefit the brewing, whiskey, and biofuel industries. Most strains of Saccharomyces ferment glucose and maltose, and partially ferment maltotriose, but are unable to utilise the larger dextrin products of starch. This utilisation pattern is partly attributed to the ability of yeast cells to transport the aforementioned mono-, di- and trisaccharides into the cytosol. The inefficiency of maltotriose transport has been identified as the main cause for residual maltotriose. The maltotriose transporting efficiency also varies between different Saccharomyces strains. By advancing the understanding of maltotriose transport in yeast, efforts can be made to minimise incomplete fermentation. This aim can be reached by investigating the existing transporters in the yeast cell membrane that show affinity for maltotriose. This study focuses on optimising maltotriose transport through the comparison of the alpha glucoside transporter obtained from different strains of Saccharomyces. Through specific genetic manipulations the areas important for maltotriose transport could be identified and characterised. This study offers prospects for the development of yeast strains with improved maltose and maltotriose uptake capabilities that, in turn, could increase the overall fermentation efficiencies in the beer, whiskey, and biofuel industries. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die transformasie van suiker na etanol en koolstof dioksied is so oud soos die beskawing self, en dit is van die vroegste tye af onlosmaaklik met die mens se kultuur verbind. Hierdie fermentasie-proses word gedomineer deur die Saccharomyces cerevisiae mikroorganisme. Hierdie organisme het antieke seevaarders voorsien van ‘n nie-bederfbare drankie en van ouds af aan bakkers ‘n rysmiddel verskaf waarmee meel in brood verander kon word. As gevolg van hierdie fermenteringspotensiaal het hierdie organisme ‘n onmisbare rol in meeste beskawings gespeel. Baie industrieë is steeds op hierdie basiese beginsel gebou. Die kompleksiteite en effektiwiteit van die transformasie van suiker na sy verskeie gefermeenteerde neweprodukte is breedvoerig bestudeer en geoptimiseer om aan die spesifieke behoeftes van verskeie industrieë te voeldoen. Afhangend van die grondstowwe wat as beginpunt gebruik is, is die primêre begunstigdes van die fermentasie proses die alkoholiese drankprodusente (onder andere die wyn-, bier- en whiskey produsente), bakkers en biobrandstofprodusente. Die suikerverbruik-voorkeur van die organisme wat die fermentering fasiliteer is een van die struikelblokke in die optimisering van die proses. S. cerevisiae kan ‘n wye spektrum van suikers verbruik maar dit toon ‘n voorkeur vir die eenvoudiger suikers. Die fermentasie van sekere van die meer komplekse suikers is vertraag en loop die risiko om agtergelaat te word na fermentasie. Vele van die gewasse wat in die gefermenteerde produkte gebruik word bevat groot hoeveelhede stysel. Vele soorte suikers word gedurende die afbreek van die stysel beskikbaar gestel vir fermentasie. Die brouers-, whiskey- en biobrandstof industrieë sal almal voordeel trek uit die verbeterde fermentasie van stysel en sy gepaardgaande dekstrin produkte. Meeste Saccharomyces gisrasse fermenteer glucose en maltose; maltotriose word gedeeltelik gefermenteer, maar die meer komplekse dekstrien produkte gevind in stysel word nie gefermenteer nie. Hierdie verbruikerspatroon kan gedeeltelik toegeskryf word aan die vermoë van gisselle om die bogenoemde mono-, di- and trisaccharides in die sitosol op te neem. Die oneffektiwiteit van maltotriose transport is identifiseer as die hoofoorsaak van post-fermentatiewe, oortollige maltotriose. Die effektiwiteit van maltotriose transport verskil ook tussen verskillende Saccharomyces rasse. Pogings om onvolledige fermentasie te veminder kan bevorder word deur die kennis rondom maltotriose transport in gis uit te bou. Hierdie oogmerk kan bereik word deur die bestaande transporters in die gissel se membraan wat ‘n affiniteit vir maltotriose toon te ondersoek. Hierdie studie fokus op die optimisering van maltotriose transport deur die vergelyking van die alpha glucoside transporter (AGT1) wat van verskillende Saccharomyces rasse afkomstig is. Die areas wat relevant is tot maltotriose transport kon deur spesifieke genetiese manipulasies identifiseer en gekarakteriseer word. Hierdie studie bevorder die vooruitsig op die ontwikkeling van gisrasse met verbeterde maltose en maltotriose transport vermoëns wat op sy beurt weer kan aanleiding gee tot die verbeterde fermentasie effektiwiteit in die bier, whiskey en biobrandstof industrieë.

The aims of the project were twofold. The initial objective of the study, based on previous results, was to develop an economically viable methodology for immobilizing yeast cells for the treatment of heavy metal-laden waste water. The non-viable yeast cross-linked by 13% (w/v) formaldehyde/1N HNO₃ exhibited satisfactory mechanical strength and rigidity in a continuous-flow column operation. No apparent disruption of the biomass after repeated use was observed. The cost of immobilizing 1kg dry yeast pellets was estimated at less than US$I. Zn uptake capacity of FA-cross-linked pellets, on batch trials, remained similar to that of raw yeast, reflecting that the immobilizing procedure did not hinder its metal removing capacity. In column studies, cation metals were effectively removed by the yeast pellets from aqueous solution at natural pHs, and then recovered completely by washing the pellets in situ with O.1M HCl. The recovered metals were concentrated in such small volumes that recycling or precipitation of them was facilitated. The metal uptake capacity of the regenerated biomass remained constant in comparison with cycle 1, indicating that reuse of the yeast would be possible. In the case of Cr⁶⁺, a gradual breakthrough curve of Cr in the column profile was noted, with a simultaneous reduction of Cr⁶⁺ to Cr³⁺. However, Cr⁶⁺ in the effluent can be markedly minimised either by accumulation onto the biomass or reduction to its trivalent form. Desorption of bound Cr⁶⁺ with either alkali or salt could not accomplish the regeneration of the biomass. A combination of reduction and desorption with FA/HNO₃ appeared promising in regeneration of the saturated biomass at 4°C. The metal sorption capacities of the yeast pellets, on a batch or a fixed-bed system are relatively lower than that of documented sorbents. Apparently more of the yeast pellets would be required for treating a certain volume of waste effluent, than with other sorbents. Therefore Azolla filiculoides was examined as a suitable sorbent for this purpose. This constitutes the second part of the project. Azolla filiculoides, a naturally-abundant water fern, was screened for its metal sorption and recovering capacities, mechanical stability, flow-permeability and reusability. The azolla biomass appeared to have fulfilled the required mechanical criteria during the repeated sorption-desorption column operations. It is water-insoluble and appears flexible under pressure when rinsed with water. These characters are of crucial importance in a continuous-flow system since a column can be operated at high flow rates without apparent compact of the biomass and pressure loss. Therefore, immobilization of the biomass can be avoided. The sorption isotherm data, obtained from batch removal of Cr⁶⁺, showed that the sorption process was effective, endothermic and highly pH dependent. Considerable amounts of Cr⁶⁺ were accumulated at the optimum pHs of 2-2.5. Column sorption of Cr⁶⁺ at a low flow rate and pH of 2.5 showed optimum performance with a total Cr uptake of 50.4mg/g at 60% saturation of the biomass. Removal of Cr⁶⁺ from an electroplating effluent using an azolla column was deemed reasonably satisfactory, although the uptake declined slightly. Desorption of bound Cr⁶⁺ with various desorbents was incomplete, which resulted in a low regeneration efficiency of about 50%. However, removal and recovery of Cr³⁺ using the azolla column was than that of Cr⁶⁺. Desorption of Cr³⁺ from the spent biomass column was accomplished with the recovery of 80% using O.5N H₂SO₄, The regeneration efficiencies for Cr³⁺ removal were up to 90% and demonstrated that the biomass is reusable. Cation metal uptake capacities of azolla, obtained either from batch or column experiments, are reasonably high in comparison with other sorbents. The uptake of Ni or Zn ions from solution is pH dependent showing the optimum pH of around 6 to 6.5, under the current experimental conditions. The sorption kinetics for cation metals was rapid with about 80% of the bound Ni ions being taken up in the first 10 min. The character of rapid binding is extremely important in a column sorption process, especially on a large scale since it favours an optimum uptake of metals at high flow rates. The Ni or Zn uptakes in column sorption were not markedly affected when the flow rates were increased from 80mllh up to 800ml/h for the 5g biomass used. The cation heavy metals removed from waste effluents were recovered in a concentrated solution of small volume. The desorption of bound Ni and Zn ions from the saturated biomass was accomplished with either O.2N HCl or H₂SO₄ that resulted in recoveries of more than 95%. The metals recovered, in the case of Ni and Zn, are identical to that of plating agents ego nickel sulphate or chloride, so that recycling of the metals is possible. An effluent-free, closed loop of Ni or Zn treatment system was proposed, whereby the Ni or Zn ions can be recycled to the plating bath whilst the purified water is fed back to the rinse tanks. Ca and Mg ions, commonly present in the electroplating effluents, appeared to affect sorption of heavy metals by azolla when metal concentrations were relatively low, presumedly through its competitive binding for the shared sites on surfaces of azolla. The data obtained from column sorption of Ni and Zn follows the BDST model well, enabling the application of the model to predicting design parameters for scale-up of the biosorption column system. It is interesting that the values of metal uptake, expressed in molar quantities, obtained on respective single-metal solutions and the multiple metal system, are similar, implying that the mechanisms involved in the sorption of all metal cations are similar and that the binding sites on surfaces of azolla are probably shared by all cation metals. The surface of the biomass provides sites for metal binding estimated in the range of 0.45-0.57mmol/g, based on the current experiments. The biomass has a surface area of 429 m²/g and water retention of 14.3 ml/g. The functional groups on the surface of azolla were partially identified using chemical modification and metal binding comparison. Among the functional groups examined, carboxyl groups, provided by amino acids and polysaccharides, appeared to play an important role in metal cation binding. The infrared spectra of the samples support this conclusion.

Fundamental processes underpinning the biotransformation of coal by fungal biocatalysts have been intensively investigated, however, limited large-scale industrial applications using such systems have been reported. The un-anticipated sporadic growth of Cynodon dactylon on the surface of un-rehabilitated discard coal dumps has been noted and this was found to be coupled with the breakdown of coal into a humic soil-like material in the top 1.5 metres of the dumps. Extensive fungal growth was observed to be associated with the Cynodon dactylon root system and examination of plant roots indicated the presence of mycorrhizal fungi. Analysis of the Cynodon dactylon plant roots around which coal biotransformation was occurring confirmed the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonisation with the species Glomus clarum, Paraglomus occultum, Gigaspora gigantea and Glomus mosseae identified to be associated with the plants. Further molecular characterisation of non-mycorrhizal rhizospheric fungi showed the presence of fungal species with coal-degrading capabilities that most likely played a role in the coal biotransformation observed. The discard coal dump environment was simulated in pot and column studies and coal biotransformation was reproduced, with this process enhanced by the addition of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal rhizospheric fungal inocula to the environment. Mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal species in the inoculum were re-isolated from the simulated environment fulfilling a number of Koch’s postulates and indicating a causal role in the biotransformation of coal. An inversion of conventional mycorrhizal colonisation was demonstrated in this system with reduction in extraradicular presence and an increase in intracellular colonisation compared to soil controls. A descriptive model was formulated suggesting a two-part fungal system involving organic carbon and nutrient exchange between the plant, mycorrhizal fungi and non-mycorrhizal coal-degrading rhizospheric fungi ultimately resulting in the biotransformation of coal. The biotransformation observed was comparable to reports of “rock-eating fungi”. Results suggest that the biological degradation of coal in situ with the production of a soil-like substrate could provide a feasible method of discard coal dump rehabilitation as well as provide a humic-rich substrate that can be utilised in further industrial applications.

Bioethanol is likely to be a large contributor to the fuel sector of industry in the near future. Current research trends are geared towards utilizing food crops as substrate for bioethanol fermentation; however, this is the source of much controversy. Utilizing food crops for fuel purposes is anticipated to cause massive food shortages worldwide. Cellulose is the most abundant renewable resource on earth and is subject to a wide array of scientific study in order to utilize the glucose contained within it. Waste paper has a high degree of cellulose associated with it, which makes it an ideal target for cellulose biotechnology with the ultimate end goal of bioethanol production. This study focussed on producing the necessary enzymes to hydrolyse the cellulose found in waste paper and using the sugars produced to produce ethanol. The effects of various printing inks had on the production of sugars and the total envirorunental impact of the effluents produced during the production line were also examined. It was found that the fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum DSM 769 grown in Mandel's medium with waste newspaper as the sole carbon source at 28 °C for 6 days produced extracellular cellulase enzymes with an activity of 0.203 ± 0.009 FPU.ml⁻¹, significantly higher activity as compared to other paper sources. This extracellular cellulase was used to hydrolyse waste newspaper and office paper, with office paper yielding the highest degree of sugar production with an end concentration of 5.80 ± 0.19 g/1 at 40 °C. Analysis by HPLC showed that although glucose was the major product at 4.35 ± 0.12 g/1, cellobiose was also produced in appreciable amounts (1.97 ± 0.71 g/1). The sugar solution was used as a substrate for Saccharomyces cerevisiae DSM 1333 and ethanol was produced at a level of 1.79 ± 0.26 g/1, the presence of which was confirmed by a 600 MHz NMR spectrum. It was found that cellobiose was not fermented by this strain of S. cerevisiae. Certain components of inks (the PAHs phenanthrene and naphthalene) were found to have a slight inhibitory effect (approximately 15% decrease) on the cellulase enzymes at very high concentrations (approximately 600 μg/1 in aqueous medium), while anthracene had no effect. Whole newsprint ink was shown not to sorb glucose. The environmental analysis of the effluents produced showed that in order for the effluents to be discharged into an aqueous ecosystem they would have to be diluted up to 200 times. They were also shown to have the potential to cause severe machinery damage if reused without proper treatment.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The polysaccharides that are present in wine originate from the grapes, the fungi that grow on the grapes and from other microorganisms that come into contact with the must during winemaking. The grape-derived polysaccharides of most concern in winemaking are pectin, glucan and xylan that can be enzymatically degraded by pectinases, glucanases and xylanases, respectively. These are the main structural polysaccharides of the cell wall of the grape cell. Degradation of the cell walls will result in the separation and rupture of the grape cells, and cell wall-bound compounds will be released into the must. Treating the must with pectinase and macerating enzyme preparations can result in an increase in free-flow juice, an improvement in must clarification and filtration, and an increased extraction of phenols and tannins. The tannins that are extracted polymerise with anthocyanins in red wine during ageing, resulting in increased colour intensity and stability. Wine aroma is also influenced by enzyme treatment. The degradation of the cell wall contributes to the release of glycosidically-bound terpene or alcohol precursors from the berries. The hydrolysis of these precursors during fermentation can result in an improvement in aroma. It can thus be seen that it is possible to improve wine quality and processing by supplementing the endogenous enzymes that are present in the fermentation with commercial enzyme preparations. Commercial enzymes are typically crude fungal preparations. The majority of commercial pectinase and glucanase preparations are derived from Aspergillus and Trichoderma, respectively. Since the endogenous polysaccharase activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is very limited, the heterologous expression of specific polysaccharase genes in an industrial yeast strain can improve the winemaking process, resulting in a higher quality wine without the addition of expensive commercial enzyme preparations. Since only the desired enzymes are secreted by the recombinant strain, there will be no undesired sideactivities, which can be detrimental to wine quality. Several pectinase-, glucanaseand xylanase-encoding genes, cloned from a variety of organisms, have been expressed successfully in laboratory strains of S. cerevisiae. Attempts have also been made to construct industrial wine yeast strains that express these polysaccharase genes and secrete the encoded enzymes. Fermentation with some of these strains resulted in a decrease in total phenolics and turbidity, an increase in juice extraction, and alterations in the colour and aromatic profile of the resulting wines. In this study, four polysaccharide-degrading, recombinant wine yeast strains were constructed. The endo-β-1,4-xylanase gene, XYN2, and the endo-β-1,4-glucanase gene, end1, were previously cloned from the soft rot fungus Trichoderma reesei and the rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, respectively. These genes were subcloned into different expression cassettes which were used to construct the four integration plasmids. The recombinant plasmids contained the following gene cassettes: TEF1P-XYN2-ADH2T (plasmid pDLG29) ADH1P- MFα1S -end1-TRP5T (plasmid pDLG30) ADH1P-MFα1S-end1-TRP5T and ADH2P-XYN2-ADH2T (plasmid pDLG33), ADH1P-MFα1S-end1-TRP5T and YG100PXYN2- ADH2T (plasmid pDLG39). These four plasmids were then separately integrated into the ILV2 locus of the commercial wine yeast strain S. cerevisiae VIN13. Wine was made with the four strains constructed in this study, a pectolytic strain, VIN13[pPPK], a glucanase- and xylanase-secreting strain, VIN13[pEX], an untransformed VIN13 strain, and an untransformed strain with the addition of the commercial enzyme preparation Rapidase EX Colour. Microvinification experiments were carried out on Pinot noir, Ruby Cabernet and Muscat d’Alexandria wines. Fermentation with the polysaccharide-degrading strains resulted in significant improvements in juice extraction, colour intensity and stability, and in alterations in the aromatic profiles of the wines produced. Subject to the approval by the regulatory authorities and eventual consumer acceptance of the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in fermented foods and beverages, it might be required that the GM status of the yeast that is used appears on the label. Currently, there is no robust technique available with which the use of GM yeast can be revealed in a finished wine because the yeast cells and their DNA are removed from or denatured in the wine during filtration and processing. One way with which the undeclared use of a GM yeast in winemaking could be exposed would be to compare the chemical profile of a suspect wine with that of non-GM wine. In order to explore this concept further, a secondary aim of this study was to investigate whether Fourier Transformation Infra Red (FT-IR) spectroscopy coupled with multivariate data analysis could distinguish between wines fermented with transgenic and non-transgenic yeast strains, or between wines fermented with different transgenic strains. The results showed that this method could be used to classify wines fermented with different yeast strains if fermentation with the strain resulted in a unique chemical profile in the resulting wine. This was a preliminary study and these findings were summarised as an addendum to the thesis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die polisakkariede wat in wyn teenwoordig is, is afkomstig van die druiwe, die swamme wat op die druiwe groei en vanaf ander mikroörganismes wat tydens die wynmaakproses met die mos in aanraking kom. Die belangrikste druifpolisakkariede in wynbereiding is pektien, glukaan en xilaan, wat onderskeidelik deur pektinases, glukanases en xilanases afgebreek kan word. Hierdie is die vernaamste strukturele polisakkariede van ‘n druifsel se selwand. Die afbreking van die selwande veroorsaak dat die druifselle skei en skeur, met die gevolg dat die selwandgebonde verbindings in die mos vrygelaat word. Die behandeling van die mos met pektinase en versappingsensiempreparate kan tot ʼn toename in vry-afloopsap lei, sowel as ʼn verbetering in mosverheldering en -filtrasie en ʼn verhoogde ekstraksie van fenole en tanniene. Die tanniene wat geëkstraheer word, polimeriseer in rooiwyn tydens veroudering, en dit lei tot verhoogde kleurintensiteit en -stabiliteit. Wynaroma word ook deur ensiembehandeling beïnvloed. Die afbreking van die druifselwand dra by tot die vrylating van glikosidiesgebonde terpeen- en alkoholvoorlopers uit die korrels. Die hidrolise van hierdie voorlopers tydens gisting kan lei tot ʼn verbetering van die aroma. Dit is dus duidelik dat dit moontlik is om wynkwaliteit en wynbereiding te verbeter deur die endogene ensieme wat in die gisting teenwoordig is met kommersiële ensiempreparate te supplementeer. Kommersiële ensiempreparate is tipies ongesuiwerde swampreparate. Die meerderheid kommersiële pektinase- en glukanasepreparate word onderskeidelik vanaf Aspergillus en Trichoderma verkry. Aangesien die endogene polisakkaraseaktiwiteit van Saccharomyces cerevisiae baie beperk is, kan die heteroloë uitdrukking van spesifieke polisakkarase-gene in ʼn industriële gisras die wynbereidingsproses verbeter en lei tot ʼn hoër kwaliteit wyn sonder die byvoeging van duur kommersiële ensiempreparate. Omdat die verkose ensieme deur die rekombinante ras uitgeskei word, sal daar geen ongewenste newe-effekte teenwoordig wees wat ʼn nadelige effek op wynkwaliteit kan hê nie. Verskeie mikrobiese gene wat vir pektinases, glukanases en xilanases kodeer, is reeds voorheen uit ‘n wye verskeidenheid van organismes gekloneer en suksesvol in laboratoriumrasse van S. cerevisiae uitgedruk. Pogings is ook aangewend om industriële wyngisrasse te konstrueer wat hierdie polisakkarasegene uitdruk en hul enkodeerde ensieme uitskei. Gisting met sommige van hierdie rekombinante gisrasse het gelei tot ʼn afname in totale fenoliese verbindings en troebelheid, ʼn verhoging in sapekstraksie, en veranderings in die kleur en aromatiese profiel van die gevolglike wyne. In hierdie studie is vier polisakkaried-afbrekende, rekombinante wyngisrasse gekonstrueer. Die endo-β-1,4-xilanasegeen, XYN2, en die endo-β-1,4- glukanasegeen, end1, is voorheen reeds onderskeidelik vanaf die sagte vrotswam, Trichoderma reesei, en die rumenbakterium, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, gekloneer. Hierdie gene is in vier integrasieplasmiede in verskillende ekspressiekassette gesubkloneer. Die plasmiede het die volgende geenkassette bevat: TEF1P-XYN2- ADH2T (plasmied pDLG29) ADH1P- MFα1S -end1-TRP5T (plasmied pDLG30) ADH1PMFα1S- end1-TRP5T and ADH2P-XYN2-ADH2T (plasmied pDLG33), ADH1P-MFα1S end1-TRP5T and YG100P-XYN2-ADH2T (plasmied pDLG39). Hierdie vier plasmiede is toe afsonderlik in die ILV2-lokus van die kommersiële wyngisras, S. cerevisiae VIN 13, geïntegreer. Wyn is met hierdie vier gekonstrueerde gisrasse gemaak, die pektolitiese gisras, VIN13[pPPK], die glukanase- en xilanase-afskeidende gisras, VIN13[pEX], die ongetransformeerde VIN13-ras, en met ʼn ongetransformeerde VIN13 gis waarby die kommersiële ensiempreparaat, Rapidase EX Colour, bygevoeg is. Mikro-wynbereidingseksperimente is op Pinot noir-, Ruby Cabernet- en Muscat D’Alexandria wyne uitgevoer. Gisting met die polisakkaried-afbrekende gisrasse het gelei tot ʼn noemenswaardige verbetering in sapekstraksie, kleurintensiteit en kleurstabiliteit, asook in veranderinge in die aromatiese profiele van die geproduseerde wyne. Indien die gebruik van geneties gemodifiseerde organismes (GMOs) in gefermenteerde voedsel en drank deur die reguleringsowerhede goedgekeur en uiteindelik deur die verbruiker aanvaar sou word, sou dit vereis kon word dat die GMstatus van die wyngisgis op die etiket van die wynbottel aangebring word. Verpligte etikettering van GM-wyn sal metodes vereis waarmee die ‘nalentskap’ van GMgisselle in die finale produk geïdentifiseer en gemoniteer kan word. Tans is daar geen robuuste tegnieke beskikbaar waarmee die gebruik van GM-giste openbaar kan word nie, aangesien die gisselle en hul DNA tydens filtrasie en prosessering verwyder word. Een wyse waarop die onverklaarde gebruik van ‘n GM-gis in wynbereiding blootgestel sou kno word, is om die chemiese profiel van die verdagte wyn met dié van ‘n nie-GM-wyn te vergelyk. Ten einde hierdie konsep verder te ondersoek was ‘n sekondêre doelwit van hierdie studie om te bepaal of FT-IR (Fourier-transformasie-infrarooi) spektroskopie tesame met meervariante dataanalise gebruik kan word om te onderskei tussen wyne wat met transgeniese en nietransgeniese gisrasse gegis is, of tussen wyne wat met verskillende transgeniese rasse gegis is. Die resultate het aangedui dat hierdie metode gebruik kan word om wyne wat met verskillende gisrasse gegis is, te klassifiseer indien die betrokke gisras ʼn unieke chemiese profiel in die uiteindelike wyn veroorsaak het. Dit was egter ʼn voorlopige ondersoek en is as ʼn byvoegsel tot die tesis geskryf.

Thesis (MSc (Wine Biotechnology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Resveratrol is a phytoalexin that is produced in the leaves and skins of grape berries in response to biotic and abiotic factors. Substitution and polymerisation of resveratrol units produce an array of compounds which form part of the active disease defence mechanism in grapevine. Wine is one of the major sources of resveratrol in the human diet. Resveratrol is one of the phenolic compounds present in wine that mediates protective effects on human health. It has been shown to prevent the development of cardiovascular disease, cancer and pathogenesis related to inflammation. Red wines contain higher levels of resveratrol than white wines owing to extended maceration times during fermentation on the skins. During white wine vinification skin contact is limited as skins are removed prior to fermentation. Thus, the extraction of resveratrol into white wines is minimal. The principal focus of our research is the development of a wine yeast strain capable of resveratrol production during grape must fermentation. It is proposed that red and white wines produced with such a resveratrol-producing yeast will contain elevated levels of resveratrol, and that added health benefits may be derived from their consumption. Initial work done in our laboratory established that expressing multiple copies of the genes encoding coenzyme A ligase (4CL216) and resveratrol synthase (vst1) in laboratory yeast enabled the yeast to produce resveratrol, conditional to the supplementation of the growth medium with p-coumaric acid. This study focused on the optimisation of resveratrol production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It involved the integration and constitutive expression of 4CL216 from hybrid poplar and vst1 from grapevine. Integration and expression of these genes in three laboratory strains was confirmed by Southern and Northern blot analyses. The evaluation of resveratrol production by yeast required the initial optimisation of the analytical techniques. We optimised the method for sample preparation from the intracellular fraction of yeast and devised a procedure for the assay of the extracellular fractions. The LCMSMS method was further developed to encompass detection and quantification of other compounds related to resveratrol production in yeast. Comparison of resveratrol production in three different yeast genetic backgrounds indicated that the onset of production and the resveratrol yield is yeast strain dependent. Precursor feeding studies indicated that p-coumaric acid availability was a factor limiting maximal resveratrol production. Early indications were obtained that endogenously-produced resveratrol may have an impact on yeast viability during extended culture periods. This study has broadened our understanding of the resveratrol production dynamics in S. cerevisiae and provided important indications as to where further optimisation would be beneficial in order to optimally engineer a wine yeast for maximal resveratrol production.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Microbiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / Beer is one of the most widely consumed alcoholic beverages in the world. The brewing process is based on natural enzymatic activities that take place during the malting of barley grain, mashing of grist and fermentation of wort. Insufficient malt enzyme activity during the mashing process leads to high levels of barley β-glucan, arabinoxylan (AX) and dextrins in the wort as well as in the final beer. It was reported that high levels of β-glucan and AX increase wort and beer viscosity which lower the rate of beer filtration and this negatively affect the production rate in the brewery. During beer fermentation, brewing yeast catalyses the conversion of wort sugars to ethanol, carbon dioxide and other metabolic products. However, non-fermentable carbohydrates i.e., limit dextrins remain in the wort and final beer. These non-fermentable carbohydrates are known to contribute to the caloric value of beer which might lead to weight gain in consumers. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of recombinant yeast strains expressing an endo-β-1,4-glucanase or an endo-β-1,4-xylanase on beer viscosity (as an indicator of filterability) and an α-amylase on residual sugars levels. The effect of the above mentioned enzymes on the aroma, appearance, flavour, mouth-feel and overall quality of the beer was also determined. Wort was produced in the University of Limpopo micro-brewery and the wort was pitched with different recombinant strains. The wild-type strain served as control. The results obtained showed that the xylanase expressing strain produced a measurable decrease in viscosity over the course of the fermentation, but endo-glucanase did not have any effect on the beer viscosity. The α-amylase producing strain, did not show a measurable reduction of residual sugars in the final beer probably as a result of very low activity on α-1,6 glycosidic bonds in dextrins during fermentation. The xylanase and α-amylase producing strain fermented effectively with good attenuation (decrease in wort specific gravity). The beer produced by the α-amylase and control strains were preferred in terms of taste and had similar qualities. The secreted amylolytic activity was not sufficient to significantly reduce residual sugar in the final beer. Although the xylanase secreting strain produced a beer with lower viscosity, the enzyme had a negative impact on the taste of the beer. Key words: Brewer’s yeast, beer fermentation, low calorie beer, amylase, xylanase, endo-glucanase.