No description available.

No description available.

Bananas (Musa sp.) serve as a staple diet and source of income for millions of people worldwide. The crop, however, is vulnerable to several important diseases such as Fusarium wilt, caused by the soilborne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) . During the mid-20th century, thousands of acres of export banana plantations were lost in Central America due to Fusarium wilt. The epidemic was brought under control only by replacing the highly susceptible Gros Michel banana with Cavendish cultivars. Cavendish bananas, however, are susceptible to Foe race 4, a highly virulent variant of the pathogen that also causes disease to banana varieties susceptible to Foc races 1 and 2. Only this time, no resistant replacement varieties acceptable to the commercial market exist, while cultural and/or chemical control strategies proved to be ineffective for disease control. The only sustainable solution, thus, would be the improvement of existing banana varieties that are acceptable to consumers for resistance to Fusarium wilt. An understanding of how plants defend themselves against pathogens is an imperative first step towards the development of disease-resistant plants. Two broad defence mechanisms against pathogen attack exist in plants: Constitutive defence mechanisms that are pathogen non-specific and induced plant defence responses following recognition of specific pathogen features. A primary objective of this study was to elucidate induced banana defence responses. Induced defence responses may include the induction of regulator and antifungal proteins, the production of active-oxygen species or products from the phenylpropanoid pathway. A few studies have attempted to elucidate the genetic factors involved in the banana defence response but to date no clear answer has arisen. Forward and reverse genetics encompass approached by which plant defence responses can be studied; a particular technique of interest which can be classified under both forward and reverse genetics is cDNA-Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) In a field trial conducted in an Foc-infested field in Kiepersol, South Africa, cultivars Rose and Calcutta IV proved resistant, and FHIA-17 tolerant to Foe 'subtropical' race 4 (VCG 0120) when compared to the highly susceptible Cavendish cultivar 'Williams'. The genetic basis of defence to Foc in FHIA-17, Rose and Calcutta IV was verified using quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-RT-PCR). Catalase, POX and PAE were strongly up-regulated in the tolerant and resistant banana varieties. These genes are involved in the oxidative burst and secondary metabolism leading to the phenylpropanoid pathway and cell wall strengthening. Resistance to Foc, 'subtropical' race 4, thus seems to depend on the early recognition of the pathogen and subsequent blocking of its progress into the plant's vascular system. The response of resistant and tolerant banana varieties to Foc was elucidated by analysing the banana transcriptome 6 and 72 hours post inoculation (hpi) using cDNA-AFLP. Seventy-six differentially expressed transcript derived fragments (TDFs) were isolated, sequenced and subjected to BLASTX and BLASTN searches. Many of the sequences were not significantly similar to any other sequences in the databases, but several genes fragments showed homology to defence-related genes. TDFs representing genes such as S-adenosylmethionine synthase (SAMS) and isoflavone reductase, which are potentially involved in the production of cell wall strengthening compounds such as lignin, were identified. Expression patterns of selected TDFs as seen on the cDNA-AFLP gels were confirmed using qRT -PCR. As additional endogenous controls, two TDFs which displayed constitutive expression on the cDNA-AFLP gels, were isolated, sequenced and were optimised for use as endogenous control genes for the normalisation of the qRT-PCR data. In most cases, the expression patterns seen on the cDNA-AFLP gels were replicated by qRT-PCR. This study concludes that the tolerant (FHIA-17) and resistant (Rose and Calcutta IV) banana varieties induced defence-related genes upon attack by Foc and that the cDNA-AFLP technique was further effective in identifying additional defence-related genes. Looking to the future, the greatest understanding of the defence responses induced during the banana/Foe interaction would be obtained by using additional molecular approaches or techniques. It is in some cases sufficient to look exclusively at transcriptomic i.e. cDNA-AFLP and microarray data to study the plant's response, however, a look at differential protein and metabolite expression would complement transcriptomic data and add insight into the fate of certain expressed genes. This would possibly speed up the identification of the defence pathways used by resistant bananas to resist infection by Foc, once identified these pathways can be manipulated in the susceptible plants and thus the generation of a Foc resistant banana could finally become a reality. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Fusarium (F.)-Infektionen des Auges zeigen oft einen schwerwiegenden Verlauf und sind am häufigsten mit Spezies des Fusarium solani species complex assoziiert. Dabei sind das Tragen von weichen Kontaktlinsen sowie Traumata die wichtigsten prädisponierenden Faktoren. Vorangegangene Untersuchungen des Nationalen Referenzzentrums für invasive Pilzinfektionen hatten ergeben, dass Infektionen durch F. petroliphilum mit der Nutzung von Kontaktlinsen, Infektionen durch F. falciforme jedoch überwiegend traumaassoziiert uns vor allem aus tropischen und subtropischen Ländern bekannt sind. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher zu untersuchen, ob F. falcifomre und F. petroliphilum physiologische Merkmale aufweisen, die für die Unterschiede in den Risikofaktoren für Keratitiden durch die beiden Arten verantwortlich sein könnten. / Fusarium (F.) - infections of the eye often show a severe course and are most frequentlyassociated with species (spp.) of the Fusarium solani species complex (van Diepeningen et al., 2014, Walther et al., 2017, Walther et al., 2018). Wearing soft contact lenses (CL) and trauma are the most important predisposing factors (Gaujoux et al., 2008, Thomas and Kaliamurthy, 2013, Ong et al., 2016, Bourcier et al., 2017). In previous studies of the National Reference Center for Invasive Fungal Infections it could be shown that infections caused by F. petroliphilum are associated with the use of CL, infections caused by F. falciforme, however, are predominantly trauma-associated and are mainly known from tropical and subtropical countries (Walther et al, 2018). This opposite behaviour of the spp. could be caused by differences in habitat and geographical distribution or by physiological differences such as germination rate, growth rate, tolerance to disinfectants, biofilm formation or cytotoxicity (Walther et al., 2018). Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether F. falciforme and F. petroliphilum have physiological characteristics that could be responsible for the differences in the risk factors for keratitis between the two spp. For this purpose, the germination rate of the conidia and the length of the germ tubes of both Fusarium spp. was shown after staining of the conidia with fluorescein isothiocyanate and incubation at different incubation times in CL cleaning solutions at room temperature. A standardized approval test for CL cleaning solutions was carried out to investigate the behaviour of the conidia towards three different CL cleaning solutions that were available in Germany at the time of the investigations. Furthermore, the tolerance of the fungi to various CL cleaning solutions was examined in realistic conditions by incubating the conidia in CL cleaning solutions with CL overnight. The ability of biofilm formation was assessed by applying the conidia to CL from various manufacturers in Sabouraud-dextrose-broth and various CL cleaning solutions. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the conidia towards human corneal epithelial cells (HCE) was measured indirectly with the aid of a corneal epithelial cell model in aerobic and microaerophilic conditions via the lactate dehydrogenase release of HCE. Establishing a statement about the immune induction was possible due to the measurement of Interleukin-8 in the supernatants of the infection models. After the nightly incubation of the conidia in CL cleaning solutions, a lower germination rate was found for all F. petroliphilum isolates than for the F. falciforme isolates in one of the three cleaning solutions. It was remarkable that F. falciforme isolate 2015-96 was insensitive to this CL cleaning solution in this test setup. By contrast, the isolates did not show a different behaviour in the two other used CL cleaning solutions. It could be also shown that F. petroliphilum isolate 2014-79 germinates more frequently in one of the three tested cleaning solutions than F. falciforme, but at the same time the mycelium formation is effectively inhibited. All other isolates of both spp. behave similarly. After incubation the CL in CL cleaning solutions, no biofilm formation on the CL could be found in any of the two species in any of the test constellations, which could be due to the short incubation time or the inability of biofilm formation of the tested Fusarium spp. In the cytotoxicity and IL-8 experiments, no difference between the two spp. could be found. More realistic conditions in the test setup, such as e. g. a more realistic imitating of the effects of CL on corneal epithelial cells, could possibly reveal any differences. The natural pathogen reservoir could play the crucial role, why F. petroliphilum is more frequently associated of with corneal infections in CL users in moderate latitudes. A possible explanation could be that F. falciforme predominantly occurs in tropical areas and more often in the soil, whereas F. petroliphilum is more common in indoor areas. Another important result of my studies was that one of the tested CL cleaning solutions was proven to be ineffective against both Fusarium spp. Consequently, Fusarium would be able to get into the eyes of the CL wearer in large numbers through contamination of the CL in the cleaning vessel and trigger an infection. A further screening of CL cleaning solutions and the documentation of the cleaning solutions used by infected patients could show whether there is a connection between the occurrence of contact lens-associated eye infections and certain CL cleaning solutions.

No description available.

No description available.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease of small grain cereals including wheat that affects grain quality and yield. The fungus Fusarium graminearum (Fg) is the major agent of this disease. Lack of natural resistance has limited ability to control wheat losses to this disease. Developing new approaches is critical for increasing host plant resistance to this fungus. This work has identified four processes that can be targeted for enhancing host plant resistance to FHB. The first involves targeting the pattern-triggered immunity mechanism to promote host plant resistance. Two other approaches involved reducing activity of susceptibility factors in the host to enhance plant resistance. The susceptibility factors targeted include accumulation of the phytohormone jasmonic acid and the 9-lipoxygenase pathway that oxidizes fatty acids. Besides suppressing host defenses against Fg, jasmonic acid also directly acts on the fungus to promote fungal growth. 9- lipoxygenases similarly suppress host defenses to promote fungal pathogenicity. Another approach that was developed involved having the plant express double stranded RNA to target fungal virulence genes for silencing. This host-induced gene silencing approach was employed to target two fungal virulence genes, the lipase encoding FGL1 and salicylate hydroxylase encoding FgNahG, which the fungus secretes into the host to promote turnover of the plant defense signaling metabolite salicylic acid. FGL1 in contrast acts on host lipids to release fatty acids, which suppress the deposition of callose that provides a physical barrier to limit fungal spread.

Fusarium é um grande gênero de fungos filamentosos amplamente distribuídos que são importantes patógenos de plantas, animais e humanos. As doenças causadas por Fusarium spp. geram grandes perdas econômicas na produção de frutas, legumes, cereais e de celulose. Em humanos, o controle da fusariose com apenas um antifúngico é ineficaz, apresentando uma elevada taxa de mortalidade, especialmente em pacientes imunocomprometidos. A maior resistência aos fungicidas utilizados atualmente tem estimulado o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias mais eficazes para o controle de fungos patogênicos. Assim, é necessária a busca de alternativas para o controle de microrganismos em ambas as áreas, clínica e agrícola. A inativação fotodinâmica antimicrobiano (IFA) é uma promissora plataforma antifúngica alternativa que pode ser utilizada para controlar o inóculo de fungos em mamíferos e no meio ambiente. A IFA baseia-se na utilização de um fotossensibilizador (FS) que se acumula na célula fúngica alvo. A exposição do FS à luz com um comprimento de onda apropriado, inicia um processo fotoquímico que produz espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs), principalmente o oxigênio singleto, causando um dano oxidativo não especifico levando a morte da célula fúngica, sem dano significativo às células do hospedeiro. Em comparação com os fungicidas utilizados atualmente, a multiplicidade dos danos causados pelas EROs, reduzem a chance de selecionar microrganismos tolerantes. No presente trabalho, avaliamos o efeito da IFA com a combinação de luz vermelhas com fluências de 10 e 15 J cm-2 e cinco FS fenotiazínicos, azul de metileno (MB), azul de toluidina O (TBO), novo azul de metileno N fórmula sem zinco (NMBN), novo azul de metileno N formula com zinco (NMBN Zn) e um novo fenotiazínico pentacíclico S137, em microconídios não germinados e 4 h-germinados de Fusarium oxysporum, F. moniliforme e F. solani. A IFA com NMBN Zn resultou em uma redução de aproximadamente 5-logs na sobrevivência dos microconídios não germinados (quiescentes) e 4 h-germinados (metabolicamente ativos) das três espécies de Fusarium quando expostas a luz na fluência de 15 J cm-2. A lavagem dos microconídios não germinados e 4 h-germinados para retirar o excesso de FS antes da exposição à luz reduziu, porém não impediu a morte provocada pela IFA. A IFA com todos os FS e fluência aumentou a permeabilidade da membrana celular dos microconídios nas três espécies de Fusarium. O dano oxidativo causado pelas EROs produzidos durante o processo fotoquímico da IFA foi avaliado nos lipídios, proteínas e DNA dos microconídios das espécies de Fusarium. Foi observado um aumento da peroxidação lipídica em microconídios das três espécies de Fusarium após a IFA com NMBN Zn e S137. Observamos o aumento na carbonilação de proteínas em microconídios de F. oxysporum após IFA subletal com todos os FS. O aumento no dano do DNA em microconídios não germinados e 4 h-germinados foi observado apenas para o S137 na fluência de 0, 10 e 15 J cm-2. Nossos estudos expandem a compreensão da inativação fotodinâmica de fungos filamentosos / Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous fungi widely distributed wich are important pathogens of plants, animals and humans. Crop diseases caused by Fusarium generate great economic losses in the production of fruit, vegetables, cereals, and cellulose. In humans the control of progression of fusariosis by single-agent antifungal therapy is problematic, leading to a high mortality rate, especially with immunocompromised patients. The increased tolerance to currently used fungicides has stimulated the development of novel and effective technologies to control pathogenic fungi. Thus, the search for alternatives to control microorganisms is necessary in both, clinical and agricultural areas. Antimicrobial photodynamic treatment (APDT) is a promising alternative antifungal platform that can be used to control fungi both in mammalian hosts and in the environment. APDT is based on the use of a photosensitizer (PS) that accumulates in the target fungal cell. The exposure of the PS to light of an appropriate wavelength starts a photochemical process that produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially singlet oxygen, leading to non-specific oxidative damage causing the death of the fungal cell without significant harm to the host cells. In comparison with currently used fungicides, the multiple and variable targets of ROS reduce the chance of selecting tolerant microorganisms. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of APDT with the combination of red light with fluence of 10 and 15 J cm-2, and five phenotiazinium photosensitizer, methylene blue (MB), toluidine blue O (TBO), new methylene blue N zinc free form (NMBN), new methylene blue N zinc chloride double salt (NMBN Zn) and a novel pentacyclic phenothiazinium S137, on ungerminated and germinated microconidia of Fusarium oxysporum, F. moniliforme and F. solani. APDT with NMBN Zn resulted in a reduction of approximately 5 logs in the survival of the quiescent ungerminated microconidia and metabolically active germinated microconidia of the three Fusarium species when the light fluence of 15 J cm-2 was applied. Washing out the PS from both ungerminated and germinated microconidia before light exposure reduced but did not prevent the killing effect of APDT. APDT with all the PS and fluences increased cell membrane permeability for the three Fusarium species. The oxidative damage caused by ROS produced during the photochemical process of APDT, was evaluated in the lipids, proteins and DNA present in the microconidia. Increases in lipid peroxidation in microconidia of the three Fusarium species were observed only after APDT with NMBN Zn and S137. Proteins oxidative damage was observed by the increase in protein carbonylation in microconidia of the F. oxysporum after APDT with all PS. The increases in DNA damage from both ungerminated and germinated microconidia was observed only for S137 at fluence of 0, 10 and 15 J cm-2. Our study expands the understanding of photodynamic inactivation in filamentous fungi

Fusarium é um grande gênero de fungos filamentosos amplamente distribuídos que são importantes patógenos de plantas, animais e humanos. As doenças causadas por Fusarium spp. geram grandes perdas econômicas na produção de frutas, legumes, cereais e de celulose. Em humanos, o controle da fusariose com apenas um antifúngico é ineficaz, apresentando uma elevada taxa de mortalidade, especialmente em pacientes imunocomprometidos. A maior resistência aos fungicidas utilizados atualmente tem estimulado o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias mais eficazes para o controle de fungos patogênicos. Assim, é necessária a busca de alternativas para o controle de microrganismos em ambas as áreas, clínica e agrícola. A inativação fotodinâmica antimicrobiano (IFA) é uma promissora plataforma antifúngica alternativa que pode ser utilizada para controlar o inóculo de fungos em mamíferos e no meio ambiente. A IFA baseia-se na utilização de um fotossensibilizador (FS) que se acumula na célula fúngica alvo. A exposição do FS à luz com um comprimento de onda apropriado, inicia um processo fotoquímico que produz espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs), principalmente o oxigênio singleto, causando um dano oxidativo não especifico levando a morte da célula fúngica, sem dano significativo às células do hospedeiro. Em comparação com os fungicidas utilizados atualmente, a multiplicidade dos danos causados pelas EROs, reduzem a chance de selecionar microrganismos tolerantes. No presente trabalho, avaliamos o efeito da IFA com a combinação de luz vermelhas com fluências de 10 e 15 J cm-2 e cinco FS fenotiazínicos, azul de metileno (MB), azul de toluidina O (TBO), novo azul de metileno N fórmula sem zinco (NMBN), novo azul de metileno N formula com zinco (NMBN Zn) e um novo fenotiazínico pentacíclico S137, em microconídios não germinados e 4 h-germinados de Fusarium oxysporum, F. moniliforme e F. solani. A IFA com NMBN Zn resultou em uma redução de aproximadamente 5-logs na sobrevivência dos microconídios não germinados (quiescentes) e 4 h-germinados (metabolicamente ativos) das três espécies de Fusarium quando expostas a luz na fluência de 15 J cm-2. A lavagem dos microconídios não germinados e 4 h-germinados para retirar o excesso de FS antes da exposição à luz reduziu, porém não impediu a morte provocada pela IFA. A IFA com todos os FS e fluência aumentou a permeabilidade da membrana celular dos microconídios nas três espécies de Fusarium. O dano oxidativo causado pelas EROs produzidos durante o processo fotoquímico da IFA foi avaliado nos lipídios, proteínas e DNA dos microconídios das espécies de Fusarium. Foi observado um aumento da peroxidação lipídica em microconídios das três espécies de Fusarium após a IFA com NMBN Zn e S137. Observamos o aumento na carbonilação de proteínas em microconídios de F. oxysporum após IFA subletal com todos os FS. O aumento no dano do DNA em microconídios não germinados e 4 h-germinados foi observado apenas para o S137 na fluência de 0, 10 e 15 J cm-2. Nossos estudos expandem a compreensão da inativação fotodinâmica de fungos filamentosos / Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous fungi widely distributed wich are important pathogens of plants, animals and humans. Crop diseases caused by Fusarium generate great economic losses in the production of fruit, vegetables, cereals, and cellulose. In humans the control of progression of fusariosis by single-agent antifungal therapy is problematic, leading to a high mortality rate, especially with immunocompromised patients. The increased tolerance to currently used fungicides has stimulated the development of novel and effective technologies to control pathogenic fungi. Thus, the search for alternatives to control microorganisms is necessary in both, clinical and agricultural areas. Antimicrobial photodynamic treatment (APDT) is a promising alternative antifungal platform that can be used to control fungi both in mammalian hosts and in the environment. APDT is based on the use of a photosensitizer (PS) that accumulates in the target fungal cell. The exposure of the PS to light of an appropriate wavelength starts a photochemical process that produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially singlet oxygen, leading to non-specific oxidative damage causing the death of the fungal cell without significant harm to the host cells. In comparison with currently used fungicides, the multiple and variable targets of ROS reduce the chance of selecting tolerant microorganisms. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of APDT with the combination of red light with fluence of 10 and 15 J cm-2, and five phenotiazinium photosensitizer, methylene blue (MB), toluidine blue O (TBO), new methylene blue N zinc free form (NMBN), new methylene blue N zinc chloride double salt (NMBN Zn) and a novel pentacyclic phenothiazinium S137, on ungerminated and germinated microconidia of Fusarium oxysporum, F. moniliforme and F. solani. APDT with NMBN Zn resulted in a reduction of approximately 5 logs in the survival of the quiescent ungerminated microconidia and metabolically active germinated microconidia of the three Fusarium species when the light fluence of 15 J cm-2 was applied. Washing out the PS from both ungerminated and germinated microconidia before light exposure reduced but did not prevent the killing effect of APDT. APDT with all the PS and fluences increased cell membrane permeability for the three Fusarium species. The oxidative damage caused by ROS produced during the photochemical process of APDT, was evaluated in the lipids, proteins and DNA present in the microconidia. Increases in lipid peroxidation in microconidia of the three Fusarium species were observed only after APDT with NMBN Zn and S137. Proteins oxidative damage was observed by the increase in protein carbonylation in microconidia of the F. oxysporum after APDT with all PS. The increases in DNA damage from both ungerminated and germinated microconidia was observed only for S137 at fluence of 0, 10 and 15 J cm-2. Our study expands the understanding of photodynamic inactivation in filamentous fungi

O projeto teve por finalidade isolar e identificar fungos, avaliar o potencial toxigênico dos isolados de Aspergillus spp. e Fusarium spp., detectar e quantificar aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1, G2 e fumonisinas B1 e B2 em amostras de misturas de cereais. Foram analisadas 15 marcas de misturas de cereais, prontas para o consumo, adquiridas de supermercados e de empresas que comercializam o produto nacionalmente via internet. Foram adquiridas amostras por sete meses, totalizando 105 amostras ao final do experimento. A contagem de bolores nas amostras variou de 1,0 x 101 a 2 x 105 unidades formadoras de colônias (UFC)/g, com isolamento de sete cepas de Aspergillus flavus. As aflatoxinas B1 e G1 foram detectadas em poucas amostras e em baixos níveis, sendo que estes resultados podem ser devidos à baixa atividade de água nos produtos avaliados, a qual foi inferior a 0,63. A fumonisina B1 foi detectada em 84,8% das amostras, no entanto, a ingestão diária provável calculada para as fumonisinas esteve abaixo da recomendação do JECFA. Apenas uma amostra apresentou níveis de fumonisinas acima do limite esperado para 2016. Adicionalmente, foi observado que 21% das amostras apresentaram mais de um tipo de micotoxina, o que poderia conduzir à potencialização de efeitos tóxicos. / The project aimed to isolate and identify fungi, evaluate the toxigenic potential of isolates of Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. detect and quantify aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 and fumonisins B1 and B2 in samples of cereal mixtures. We analyzed 15 brands of cereal mixtures ready to eat adding up to 105 samples at the end of the experiment. Samples were acquired in supermarkets and from companies that market the product nationally by internet. The mold count in the samples ranged from 1.0 x 101 to 2 × 105 colonies forming units (CFU)/ g, with isolation of seven strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxin B1 and G1 were detected in a few samples and at low levels, what might be due to the low water activity in the product reviews, which was less than 0.63. Fumonisin B1 was detected in 84.8% of the samples, however, the probable daily intake calculated for fumonisin was bellow the JECFA recommendation. Only one sample showed fumonisin levels above the expected limit for 2016. Additionally, it was observed that 21% of the samples presented more than one type of mycotoxin, which could lead to enhancement of toxic effects.