Diss. Linköping : Univ., 2003. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Recent studies suggest that the neural retinal response to light is compromised in diabetes. Electroretinogram studies suggest that the dim light retinal rod pathway is especially susceptible to diabetic damage. The purpose of this study was to determine whether diabetes alters rod pathway signaling.

Maternal behaviour during the peri-partum period, albeit in differing forms, can be observed in all mammals, thus it must serve an important evolutionary purpose in enabling the successful raising of offspring. Maternal behaviour is comprised of a large suite of behaviours; in rodents these are generally defined as lactation, pup retrieval, maternal aggression and pup grooming. The maternal behaviour circuitry involves many brain regions including the hypothalamus and the limbic system which work together to regulate the motor, motivational and emotional demands of the lactation period. The main aim of this thesis is to understand how different neuromodulators, specifically oxytocin (OXT), vasopressin (AVP), allopregnanolone (AP) and GABA, influence the expression of maternal behaviour, especially maternal aggression, and where in the brain they act to control this. Maternal aggression in rats changes dramatically throughout pregnancy, parturition and lactation. This expression is highly influenced by pups and during early lactation, pup cues are essential in maintaining it. Towards the end of lactation pup cues appear to result in the down regulation of maternal aggression. The maternal aggression circuitry is highly complex and involves many of the brain regions highlighted to be involved in maternal behaviour. The neuropeptides, OXT and AVP, are observed to have significant changes in their systems that correlate with maternal aggression, specifically within the BnST and PVN. This leads to the proposal they work oppositely to control maternal aggression by regulating fear and anxiety in the lactating rat. There is also evidence the OXT system mediates the motor output of maternal aggression. AP and GABA are also important in maternal behaviour, especially in relation to fear; whether this in context with OXT to enable maternal aggression or if they are a back up mechanism for OXT secretion malfunctioning remains to be determined. By understanding the complex maternal behaviour neural circuitry and how neuromodulators work to control it, enables the development of potential therapies for disorders a woman may experience during the peri-partum period. Prevention of these disorders is not only beneficial to the mother and her immediate family but is also crucial for her offspring’s development in prevention of adulthood disorders stemming from their childhood experience which can impact their own paternal or maternal care ability.

In this thesis, I examined the inhibitory control of REM sleep motor activity using both a pharmacological rat model and a genetic mouse model. I characterized the role for GABA and glycine in mediating the REM-specific suppression of muscle activity as well as their involvement in regulating the phasic muscle twitches that punctuate this atonia. Based on four specific research objectives, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. REM atonia is not directly mediated by glycinergic or GABAA-mediated inhibition. These data refute the prevailing hypothesis that REM atonia is caused by glycinergic inhibition. These receptors are, however, important in the regulation of phasic muscle twitch activity. 2. GABAB receptors can modulate REM atonia but only when acting in concert with GABAA and glycine receptors. Blockade of all three receptor types results in a partial reversal of REM atonia, suggesting a functional interaction is occurring between these receptors during REM sleep. 3. The phasic glycinergic/GABAA-mediated inhibitory drive present in REM sleep regulates the temporal pattern of phasic twitch activity that is seen across this state. I hypothesize that this progressively decreasing inhibitory input counteracts a gradually increasing excitatory input to shape the temporal distribution of muscle twitches across REM sleep. 4. A loss of normal inhibitory function may play a causal role in the pathology of REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD), the sleep disorder characterized by excessive motor activity in REM sleep.

A depressão é um transtorno que possui maior prevalência nas mulheres do que nos homens. A progesterona pode estar envolvida nos mecanismos que geram estas diferenças. Este hormônio é utilizado clinicamente para mulheres em diversos eventos reprodutivos, e seu efeito na depressão não está bem estabelecido. Estudos em modelos animais mostraram que existe uma influência da progesterona no comportamento tipo-depressivo em roedores, mas estes estudos são inconclusivos. Autores têm demonstrado que as mudanças comportamentais em roedores ocasionadas pela progesterona estão associadas à alterações nas subunidades do receptor GABAA. O ácido Y-aminobutírico (GABA) é o principal neurotransmissor inibitório do sistema nervoso central. O receptor GABAérgico é composto de uma combinação de 5 subunidades que formam um poro iônico. A composição de subunidades mais comum é a composta de 2a1, 2b2 e 1g2. A modulação da atividade GABAérgica pela progesterona é específica à estrutura encefálica utilizada. O estriado é a estação de entrada para os núcleos da base, uma estrutura envolvida em respostas comportamentais. O córtex préfrontal é uma estrutura de grande importância no circuito límbico envolvida no controle de situações estressantes. Estudos têm mostrado uma assimetria funcional nesta estrutura relacionada ao gênero em respostas adaptativas ao estresse e no processamento emocional em humanos. Há também evidências relacionadas à depressão, de assimetria no sistema GABAérgico no estriado. Desta forma, no primeiro artigo, foi investigado o efeito antidepressivo de baixas doses de progesterona com dois protocolos de tratamento: agudo e crônico. No segundo e terceiro artigos foram avaliadas a expressão das subunidades a1 e g2 do receptor GABAA nos hemisférios direito e esquerdo do estriado e do córtex préfrontal de ratos Wistar machos e fêmeas que receberam o tratamento crônico com progesterona e de ratos que, adicionalmente, foram submetidos ao teste do nado forçado. No estriado, foi avaliada a expressão do mRNA, por RT-PCR, e no córtex pré-frontal foi avaliado em machos, adicionalmente, a expressão protéica por Western Blot destas subunidades. O tratamento agudo com progesterona não alterou o comportamento tipodepressivo dos ratos, mas o tratamento crônico diminuiu o comportamento tipodepressivo em fêmeas e aumentou em machos. A dose utilizada não alterou o ciclo hormonal das fêmeas. A análise da imobilidade dos animais que receberam veículo demonstrou que as fêmeas em diestro II foram mais depressivas do que os machos, refletida por sua maior imobilidade no teste do nado forçado. Este resultado comportamental das fêmeas pode estar associado aos mais baixos níveis séricos de progesterona característicos desta fase do seu ciclo reprodutivo. A expressão da subunidade g2 no estriado dos ratos controle foi assimétrica, onde machos mostraram maior expressão no hemisfério esquerdo do que no direito, que pode representar uma característica de risco mais baixo para depressão. Não houve assimetria no estriado das fêmeas ou no córtex pré-frontal dos grupos controle. No estriado e no córtex pré-frontal, o estresse altera a simetria da expressão da subunidade a1, induzindo maior expressão no lado direito do que no esquerdo. Esta resposta assimétrica ocorreu em ratos machos e em fêmeas submetidos ao estresse específico das injeções. Ainda, os machos respondem ao estresse pela alteração da expressão da subunidade a1 e têm a capacidade de se recuperar desta alteração após a exposição a outro tipo de estressor nas duas estruturas analisadas neste trabalho. O estresse, independente do tipo, diminui a expressão da subunidade g2, tanto no estriado como no córtex pré-frontal. O efeito antidepressivo da progesterona nas fêmeas está correlacionado com a maior expressão da subunidade a1 no córtex préfrontal. O efeito pró-depressivo nos machos está correlacionado com o aumento da expressão da subunidade g2 no estriado. Progesterona altera o comportamento tipo-depressivo alterando a eficiência do sistema GABAA no hemisfério direito do córtex pré-frontal de fêmeas e no estriado de machos. A análise da expressão do mRNA e da proteina demonstrou que progesterona e o nado forçado aumentaram bilateralmente a expressão do mRNA da subunidade α1, mas aumentaram a expressão protéica desta subunidade apenas no hemisfério direito. Além disso, progesterona não modificou o mRNA da subunidade g2 mas aumentou sua expressão protéica, indicando a existência de possíveis modificações pós-transcricionais. / Major depression is more prevalent among women than men, and progesterone might be involved in the mechanisms that generate these differences. Progesterone is clinically used for women in several reproductive events, but its antidepressant effect is unclear. Animal studies showed the interference of progesterone on depressive behaviors of rodents, but they are inconclusive, and no study compared different treatment durations. The behavioral changes ocasioned by progesterone has been associated with GABAAR activity modulation. Y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, and generally consists of a combination of 2a1, 2β2 and 1g2 subunits. The modulation of GABAA receptor by progeterone is specific to brain region studied. Prefrontal cortex is a nodal point of a limbic circuit involved in the control of stress situations. Studies have shown a sex-related functional asymmetry in this region mediating adaptive coping responses to stress and emotional processing in humans.The striatum is the input station for the basal ganglia, which is involved in behavioral responses. In this structure, there is evidence of brain hemispheric asymmetry in the GABAergic system related to depression. This study investigated the antidepressant effect of low doses of progesterone in male and female rats under acute or chronic administration. Male and female Wistar rats in different phases of the estrous cycle were acutely administered different doses of progesterone (0.0, 0.4. 0.8 and 1.2 mg/kg) and tested in the forced swimming test (FST). The lowest dose of progesterone (0.4 mg/kg) was chronically administered during two complete estrous cycles and diestrous II female and male rats were tested in the FST. One group only received chronic progesterone without have been evalued in the FST. The effects on the GABAA a1 and g2 receptor subunit mRNA expressions by RT-PCR in the striatum and prefrontal cortex these animals were examined. In the prefrontal cortex, the protein expression by Western Blot of these subunits was additionally evaluated. Progesterone decreased depressive-like behaviors only in chronically treated diestrous II female rats and increased immobility in male rats. This low dose of progesterone did not interfere in the hormonal cycling in female rats. Results also showed that diestrous II female rats had greater immobility than male rats in the FST. The greater immobility of diestrous II female rats shows that rats in this estrous phase present more depressive-like behaviors that may be associated with their lower serum levels of progesterone. We showed that progesterone chronically administered at low doses reverses these depressive-like behaviors and has an antidepressant effect during the diestrous II phase of the estrous cycle. In the striatum, the expression of the g2 subunit displayed a gender-specific asymmetry. The stress caused by injections decreased the expression of g2 and a1 mRNA in the striatum of both male and female rats, while stress caused by forced swimming decreased only the expression of g2. Also, the expression of the g2 and a1 subunits modified in according to the nature of the stressor. Chronic progesterone treatment increased both, g2 and a1 subunits, depending on the brain hemisphere, the level of stress, and the gender. A positive correlation between depression-like behavior in male rats treated with progesterone and the expression of the g2 subunit in the right striatum was noted. Our findings suggest that the g2 subunit of GABAAR can play an important role in the regulation of depressive behavior under certain stress conditions. In the pre-frontal cortex, the expression of a1 and g2 mRNA subunits are gender-specific in the control and stressed rats. It occurred a hemispheric specificity in the expression of the a1 and g2 subunits in response to injections stress as well as to progesterone treatment differentially regulated by gender. The mRNA and protein expression analysis demonstrated that progesterone plus forced swimming increased billaterally the expression of α1 mRNA, but the protein expression was increased only in the right prefrontal cortex. Moreover, progesterone did not modify the g2 mRNA but it increased its protein expression, indicating the existence of possible post-transcriptional modifications in this structure. Also, there was a negative correlation between the mRNA and protein expression of α1 subunit in the right prefrontal cortex and the immobility behavior in female rats. Thus, progesterone may improve the depressive behavior of females restoring the efficiency of system GABAA of right prefrontal cortex.

No description available.

Nous avons identifié comment les propriétés fonctionnelles des microcircuits GABAergiques dustriatum se mettent en place depuis la période embryonnaire jusqu’à l’adulte, et comment elles sont modifiées dans un modèle adulte pharmacologique (6-hydroxydopamine) ou génétique(PINK1 KO) de la maladie de Parkinson. Les neurones de projection (MSNs) immatures du striatum génèrent une séquence d’activités spontanées : des spikes calciques isolés et des plateaux calciques dans des petites assemblées de neurones connectés par des jonctions gap(E14-P8) puis des bouffées de spikes synchronisées d’origine synaptique (P6-P7). Ensuite les MSNs deviennent silencieux in vitro juste avant l’apparition de la locomotion du fait de l’expression du courant K de la rectification entrante et de la perte de la composante NR2C/Ddes réponses synaptiques cortico-striatales. Enfin dans les deux modèles murins de Parkinson,les courants synaptiques GABAergiques spontanés des MSNs deviennent géants ou en bouffées du fait du dysfonctionnement d’un seul type d’interneurone GABAergique. Ces résultats montrent l’importance de déterminer l’impact des altérations précoces du système dopaminergique sur le développement des microcircuits GABAergiques du striatum / We investigated how the functional properties of the mouse GABAergic microcircuits of the striatum mature from embryonic to adult stages and how they are altered in a pharmacological(6-OHDA) or genetic (PINK 1 KO) adult model of Parkinson’s disease (PD). The dominant population of immature projection neurons, the medium spiny neurons (MSNs) generates asequence of spontaneous calcium activities: calcium spikes and synchronized gap junction driven calcium plateaus (E14-P8) followed by synapse-driven synchronized calcium spikes (P6-P7). Then they become silent in vitro (P8-P10) just before the onset of locomotion (P10-P12), because of the parallel expression of the K+ rectifying current and loss of the NR2C/Dcomponent of NMDA receptor-mediated cortico-striatal responses. In addition, we show that thetonic low frequency, spontaneous GABAergic activity of MSNs switches to a gigantic or bursting pattern in both PD models. This switch is due to only one subtype of GABAergic interneuron which entrains the striatal microcircuits in abnormal GABAergic oversynchrony. This study reflects the need for developmental investigations on the impact of early alteration of the dopaminergic system on striatal GABAergic microcicuits

Alcoholism is a devastating chronic relapsing disorder with significant costs to individuals and society. The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system plays an important role in regulating reward and addiction. GABA neurons located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) regulate VTA DA neuron activity, and are a relevant target for alcohol in the brain. VTA GABA neurons exhibit marked hyperexcitability during withdrawal from ethanol. Past research has demonstrated that the motivational effects of opiates cause a change in VTA GABA(A) receptors in opiate-dependent animals, which switch from a GABA-induced hyperpolarization of GABA neurons to a GABA-induced depolarization. The focus of this study was to characterize excitatory and inhibitory synaptic activity in VTA GABA neurons during withdrawal from acute and chronic alcohol, and to evaluate the function of the GABA(A) receptor in the pathway to dependence. Animals were either given injections of ethanol or saline, or were kept in ethanol vapor or air chambers for three weeks. We used standard whole-cell, perforated patch, and cell-attached mode electrophysiological techniques and pharmacology to obtain recordings of cellular activity. Results for excitatory and inhibitory synaptic events were somewhat mixed and inconclusive. There is evidence for a shift in function of the GABA(A) receptor after exposure to ethanol. We found that after a single injection of ethanol (4.0 g/kg) or a chronic intermittent ethanol vapor exposure, VTA GABA neuron firing rate is less sensitive to muscimol's inhibitory effects. The neural substrates of addiction studied here are important steps in the road to alcohol dependence, and a better understanding of them may lead to novel therapies.

The Distal-less (Dlx) homeobox genes of mammals are expressed in many tissues of the developing organism including the limbs, craniofacial skeleton and the forebrain. In the forebrain, Dlx1, Dlx2, Dlx5 and Dlx6 play a critical role in driving tangential migration of GABAergic progenitors from the ventral telencephalon to their final destinations, notably the neocortex and the striatum. These Dlx genes are organised into convergently transcribed clusters with short intergenic regions that contain notable cis regulators elements (CREs) that drive Dlx expression in unique subdomains of the developing ventral telencephalon. Previous studies have characterised Dlx regulation including but not limited to the direct activation of these CREs by effector proteins. However, to date very little work has been done to examine how the forebrain Dlx genes may be regulated at the level of the chromatin. To explore this, I used in silico and in vivo methods to examine some key histone modifications of the Dlx1/2 and Dlx5/6 bigene clusters in the developing forebrain; namely H3K27Ac, H3K4me3, H3K4me1 and H3K27me3. I found that within the Dlx expressing ganglionic eminences (GE), at midgestation, the Dlx loci are marked by bivalent chromatin which is enriched in both permissive H3K4me3 and repressive H3K27me3 marks. By performing ChIP-qPCR on the GE tissue of embryonic mice with targeted deletions of enhancer CREs, I found that these CREs play unique roles in shaping the chromatin. Removal of one of these CREs has widespread effects on the chromatin at both loci. Since these changes in chromatin signatures do not accompany significant changes in expression of histone modifying genes, we believe these CREs play yet-to-be determined roles in recruiting the modifying proteins to the loci, thereby establishing bivalent chromatin to fine-tune Dlx expression.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2006. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 86 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 75-85).