Companies worldwide are facing a severe competition from an increasing number of domestic and foreign competitors, who put extra pressure on the achievement of market efficiency and performance. In this context, research and transference of managerial tools aimed at increasing performance has become decisive for organizations. One particular tool, the coaching of the sales force, has been largely praised by practitioners and scholars alike as a central managerial activity increasing employee's performance. As salespeople's performance is a key antecedent of organizational performance, research on sales coaching as a tool for increasing performance is critical. Despite its importance, research on coaching has been scarce and inconsistent, and published work has been predominantly practice-driven and guru-led, lacking solid theoretical basis. Additionally, the relationship between coaching and performance has not received conclusive support, and the mediating variables linking coaching with performance have not been studied; these restrictions limited the explanations and predictive capacity of present models. This research tries to close the gap between what is presently known about coaching and what should be known in the opinion of both practitioners and scholars, by answering two general research questions: 1) does coaching by the sales manager have an impact on salesperson's performance?; and 2) what are the mediating mechanisms that turn coaching by the sales manager into salesperson's performance? This dissertation presents a model based on two institutionalized' theories, Leader-member Exchange (LMX) Theory and Goal-setting Theory; LMX is a dyadic, relational theory, useful to explain the high quality relationship developed between coach and coaché during the coaching intervention, and some of the proximal outcomes of this relationship; goal-setting theory is particularly useful in sales contexts, where salespeople have clearly defined goals, to understand how the coaching intervention can mobilize salesperson's cognition and motivation in order to achieve the goals. The model explores the motivational and cognitive process enacted by the coaching intervention that have an impact on salesperson's performance, and proposes different ways through which coaching could be translated into increased performance; according to the model, the coaching intervention helps the salesperson to develop new task-specific strategies , which increases his capacity of adapting to different selling situations; additionally, the characteristics of the coaching intervention increases his goal commitment and his self-efficacy ; in consequence, the salesperson will spend more effort , with greater persistence , and will choose better strategies; as a consequence of increased sales adaptability, new strategies, goal commitment, self-efficacy and effort, salesperson's performance will also increase. The model was tested using data collected early in 2011; a local Latin-American branch of a global industrial company and a Canadian bank accepted to participate in the study, and invitations to take a web-based survey were sent to their sales forces. I received 186 complete, usable responses, for a total response ratio of 40.43%, which were used to test the model using Structural Equation Modeling. Results supported the main hypotheses; the conclusion of the dissertation is that the coaching intervention actually enacts motivational and cognitive mechanisms in the salesperson that allows him to increase his performance. These mechanisms are increased effort, adaptive selling, sales planning, new strategies, goal commitment and self-efficacy. The dissertation contributes to the solution of the research problem in several ways. First, it proposes a model of coaching mediators, an issue that has not been addressed by previous research. The model represents an original perspective that advances the field of coaching research by enlarging our understanding of the processes addressed by the coaching intervention. Second, the model proposes two complementary ways for achieving performance; one that considers the motivational aspects of the coaching intervention, where an increased performance is achieved through increased goal commitment and effort; the other one considers the cognitive aspects of the coaching intervention, where an increased performance is achieved through increased adaptive selling and sales planning behavior, and the development and implementation of new task-related strategies. These two ways are consistent with present research on adaptive selling and sales performance. Third, the model is based on two institutionalized theories: LMX and Goal-setting Theory. The use of these theories is an original approach, useful to understand how coaching work in sales contexts. As the proposed model is not based on any particular practitioner's model or set of experiences, it can potentially be generalized through a large series of organizational settings. Finally, the results of this research contributes: 1) to the advancement of scientific knowledge through the development of an original, theory-based model of coaching mediators, as well as 2) to the solution of a managerial problem by providing practical insights to practitioners willing to implement successful coaching processes in their organizations.

Although there is considerable interest in the role of performance management systems (PMS) to enhance innovation and performance, there is limited literature regarding successful implementation in organisations. Most research has focused on the technicalities of performance management implementations, while neglecting the human reactions that influence the outcomes of such systems. This research therefore aimed to examine employees’ perceptions of performance management systems in various organisations and how performance management systems, or the lack thereof, specifically influence performance in the Namibian organisational context. A multiple case study methodology was adopted for the research, where open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from various organisations. Data was primarily analysed by means of qualitative content analysis which was supported by the pattern matching technique. The research findings supported goal setting theory which predicts that performance benefits can be realised by implementing specific challenging goals because they have a motivational effect on employees compared to vague and easy goals. Findings also supported theory which suggests employee participation in goal setting and providing feedback led to higher performance compared to when goals are assigned and no feedback is given. The findings supported predicted positive relationships between rewards and performance. However, findings also suggested that performance management systems, or lack thereof, are unfair because rewards are distributed unjustly, which has a negative effect on performance. Nevertheless, it was suggested that employees are more motivated to perform by intrinsic factors, including achieving challenging goals, than extrinsic factors. These findings not only supported goal setting theory, they supported McGregor’s (1960) theory Y which argued that employees are ambitious and motivated by more than money, yet surprisingly also supported his theory X as it was revealed that some employees would only work harder if rewards, or performance bonuses, are given. Although the research aimed to test goal setting theory, findings also supported Vroom’s (1964) valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory, Maslow’s (1943) and McClelland’s (1975) need theories, which all argue that performance is enhanced by other sources of motivation. The findings supported contradictory theories, yet discovered interdependency among the theories, which created a cyclical notion. This means, Vroom’s (1964) theory argues that an employee can be motivated to perform better when there is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and in the realisation of personal goal in the form of some reward. It, however, implies that goal setting theory has no impact on employees’ performance. Yet, according to the qualitative findings, some employees will only increase performance if their performance is monitored and appraised. Therefore organisations are required to have performance management systems in place, in turn, supporting goal setting theory. The research attempted to generate meaningful insight that would be beneficial to organisations, in and outside Namibia, that are considering implementing or improving their performance management systems by incorporating what employees perceive to be fundamentally important. Communication, management support, performance feedback, education and training, goal setting and employee participation are amongst the factors perceived as essential to effective performance management systems implementation. As literature (Bernardin & Beatty, 1984; Fox & Spector, 2002) has affirmed, these findings stress that the effectiveness of performance management systems depends on employees’ attitudes and perceptions of the systems.

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Background: The majority of Americans - especially women - do not meet physical activity recommendations. Having physical activity goals has been associated with physical activity participation, and physical activity recommendations set by public health experts can be viewed as externally set goals. However, past research has shown that goals that are specific rather than ambiguous are more likely to be achieved, and variations in recommendations over time and across sources may have created perceived goal ambiguity.Objectives: This study aimed to (1) examine the extent of physical activity recommendation knowledge among adults in the United States, (2) quantify perceptions of the ambiguity of these recommendations, (3) determine whether knowledge of physical activity recommendations is associated with physical activity level, and (4) investigate whether perceived ambiguity of recommendations moderates the relationship between recommendation knowledge and activity. An additional objective was to explore demographic differences in any associations detected.Methods: SUDAAN was used to weight data from the 2005 Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) (N=5,586) to represent the U.S. population. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and logistic regression was used to determine crude and adjusted odds ratios.Results: An estimated 31% of Americans had accurate knowledge of recommendations, and 35% reported engaging in physical activity at the recommended level. An estimated 75% perceived the recommendations as ambiguous. The odds of reporting accurate knowledge of recommendations were significantly higher among women than among men (OR 1.53,95% CI 1.22-1.93), but accurate knowledge of recommendations was associated with physical activity at the recommended level only among men (OR 1.67,95% CI 1.06-2.64). Perceived ambiguity did not moderate the association between knowledge and activity level in any analysis.Conclusions: These findings support disseminating updated physical activity recommendations as indicated by the scientific evidence base. Future research should explore: (1) how to boost knowledge of recommendations, particularly in men, (2) factors that would enable women to act on such knowledge, and (3) gender differences in other determinants of physical activity.

The current study investigates instructional design factors that can be manipulated to enhance learner motivation. A goal-based approach to enhancing motivation is discussed, along with current theory concerning the goal orientation an individual learner brings to an instructional situation. The efficacy of Prospect Theory as a cognitive mechanism underlying the valuation of effort toward a goal is discussed, and an experiment is presented in which goal messaging is manipulated based on the predictions of Prospect Theory as well as Goal Setting Theory. A Web-based tutorial consisting of ten sections of text, each with a recall test, was used. An ability goal orientation was found to impact section quiz scores. Both goal message framing and goal difficulty level were found to interact with an ability goal orientation to impact performance on section quizzes. A learning goal orientation was found to interact with goal difficulty to impact section quiz scores. The author concludes that while the study supports the use of goal messaging to enhance motivation, such manipulations by educators must be made in light of the goal orientations a learner brings to the instructional setting.

Purpose – The current study aims to analyze how employees in temporary groups gets motivated, based on their personality traits and generation belonging, focusing on the goal setting theory. The study also focuses on the combination of these two variables concerning the goal setting theory. Design – A total of 56 individuals working in project groups completed the questionnaire made for measure their personality traits and their work motivation. Findings – Results in this specific case demonstrated differences in motivation based on their personality traits and generation. The study also found differences when studying the combination of the two variables. For example that generation X employees with a high trait of extrovert, gets motivated by taking more responsibility, while employees in generation Y with high trait of openness gets motivated when a goal is set high. Research limitations – this study should be seen as a case and not to be generalized across all employees working in temporary groups.

Denna studie handlar om målkonflikter och har haft som syfte att ta reda på hur målkonflikter hanteras grundskolor. Vi har använt oss utav en kvalitativ metod där vi har gjort intervjuer med två skolchefer och tre rektorer inom skolverksamheten. Vi har använt oss av två teorier, vilka är agentteorin och målsättningsteorin. Den första teorin som vi har använt oss av var agentteorin som menar att agenten handlar i egenintresse. Den andra teorin vi använde var målsättningsteorin som handlar om att undersöka individernas motivation till att uppnå de uppsatta målen samt vad som gör att målen uppnås. Tidigare forskning menar att individer kan uppleva att det uppstått en målkonflikt på olika sätt. Det beror på hur den enskilda individen känner kring de uppsatta målen för verksamheten, men forskningen tyder även på att om målen inte är självbestämmande upplevs en målkonflikt. Tidigare forskning har visat att en konflikt kan hanteras genom att tvinga, integrera, kompromissa, påverka och omvandla. Vi har i denna studie kommit fram till att konflikterna hanteras genom att kompromissa. Vi har även i vår analys kommit fram till att målkonflikter hanteras genom dialog, öppet klimat och delaktighet. En målkonflikt mellan budget- och kvalitetsmål hanteras genom att kvalitetsmålen prioriteras högst då alla elever på en grundskola ska ha rätt till utbildning samt ska kunna klara av sina studier. En målkonflikt mellan individuella- och verksamhetsmål hanteras genom att verksamhetsmålen prioriteras högst då de personliga målen oftast är desamma som verksamhetsmålen. En målkonflikt mellan mål och motivation hanteras genom att alla i skolverksamheten är delaktiga. / This study wants to get a deeper comprehension and knowledge about goal conflicts. The aim of our study was to research how goal conflicts are managed in elementary schools. We used a qualitative approach as a method and we decided to interview three principals and two chiefs in school sector. We have used two theories, which are agency theory and goal-setting theory. The first theory that we have used was the agency theory, which means that the agent is acting in his own interest. The second theory we used was the goal-setting theory, which investigate the motivation of individuals to achieve the goals that are set. Previous research indicates that individuals can experience that a goal conflict has occurred in different ways. It depends on how the individual feel about the goals that are set, but the research also indicates that if the goals aren't self-determination it often feels like a goal conflict. Previous research have shown that a conflict is managed by forcing, integrate, compromise, affect and convert. We have, in this study, showed that goal conflicts are managed by compromise. We have also showed in our analysis that goal conflicts are managed by dialogue, open climate and participation. Our conclusion in this study showed that goal conflicts are managed in the same way in both private- and public elementary schools. A goal conflict between budget and quality are managed the way that quality priorities higher than budget because all students in an elementary school are entitled to education and to be able to complete their studies. A goal conflict between individual- and operational goals are managed the way that the operational goals priorities higher than the individual goals. A goal conflict between goal and motivation are managed the way that everyone in school participate.

Yes / Goal-setting is fundamental to organisational management, yet not every manager knows how do it well. A narrative literature review was done to explore current knowledge of definitions and classifications of goals, and principles of goal-setting in the health sector. Online databases generated 65 relevant articles. Additional literature sources were snowballed from referenced articles, and textbooks. Most academic authors define ‘goal’ synonymously as ‘aim’ or ‘objective’, but with evidence of hermeneutical confusion in general literature. Goal classifications are diverse, differing according to their contextual, structural, functional and temporal characteristics. Many authors agree that goal-setting is problem-based, change-oriented and can effectively motivate attainment, if the goal statement is formulated with a specific and challenging or SMART framework. However, recent authors report varying defining attributes for SMART, and evidence of past studies that have empirically examined the nature and efficacy of frameworks currently used for formulating goal statements for health programmes is lacking.

<p>Previous research has identified creativity goals and process goals as two contextual interventions for enhancing creativity in the workplace. Whereas creativity goals direct attention and effort toward outcomes that are both novel and useful, process goals direct attention and effort toward the creative process – behaviors and cognitions intended to enhance creative outcomes. The current research draws from past research and theory on goals and intrinsic motivation to explain how creativity goals and process goals influence creative performance, and perhaps more importantly, <i>why</i>. Specifically, I suggest that creativity goals have a direct, positive relationship with creative performance; however, process goals have an indirect, positive relationship with creative performance through creative process engagement. Additionally, specificity has the ability to focus attention on relevant processes and outcomes within the creativity criterion space. While specific creativity goals are predicted to direct attention toward desirable solutions without thwarting needs for autonomy, specific (i.e., structured) process goals may thwart autonomy perceptions, resulting in lower levels of intrinsic motivation, and ultimately creative performance. The hypotheses proposed were examined in a sample of 560 undergraduate students utilizing a 3 (creativity goals: specific, general, and no goal) x 3 (process goals: structured, semi-structured, and no goals) between-subjects experimental design. Results revealed creativity goals, particularly specific creativity goals, have a direct positive influence on creative performance. Process goals have an indirect positive relationship on creative performance through creative process engagement. Moreover, process goals have a negative impact on perceptions of autonomy, which in turn negatively impacts creative performance by reducing intrinsic motivation. The specific creativity goal had the strongest effects and appears to be an effective way to enhance both creative process engagement and creative performance. Taken together, these findings suggest that goals are a tenable means of enhancing creative performance; however, care should be taken to reduce adverse consequences for autonomy perceptions. </p>

The purpose of this study was to investigate effective change communication in the workplace by utilizing goal setting theory. Due to potential validity issues with previous organizational communication audit research, a multi-methods study was devised to investigate and construct a new measure for effective change communication in the workplace. Preliminary interviews along with previous research were utilized to construct a survey questionnaire gauging effective change communication in the workplace. Over 1,000 employees at a large, health-services companies participated in the study. The results from the study yield a framework for evaluating effective change communication on individual (i.e. behavior, trait, and knowledge) and organizational (i.e. accuracy, clarity, and availability) levels. Also, the data was divided between males and females, communication sources, and the perceptions of effective supervisory communication. The study’s practical implications, addition to goal setting theory, limitations, and future research are noted.