Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects over 10 million people. Treatments for PD are limited to symptom mitigation with no means of stopping or slowing disease progression. Mutations within the protein leucine- rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial PD and are indistinguishable from the more common sporadic cases. Identifying molecules capable of modulating LRRK2 GTPase activity may serve as the foundation for future development of novel PD therapeutics. We recently discovered that the G-domain (ROC) of LRRK2 is capable of transitioning between monomer and dimer form in solution upon GTP/GDP binding. R1441C/G/H pathogenic mutations were demonstrated to alter this dynamic shifting toward a monomeric ROC conformation while decreasing GTPase activity. Using our ROC dimeric crystal structure, we strategically introduced disulfide bonds to generate locked monomer and locked dimer states. Monomeric ROC was shown to increase GTPase activity while the dimeric form decreased activity. Solvent mapping performed using the dimeric ROC crystal structure and a homology model of the ROC monomer revealed a binding hotspot at the ROC dimeric interface and adjacent to the R1441 residue in the monomeric model. In this study our goal was to identify more compounds capable of influencing GTPase activity. We performed high throughput screening of ROC against two compound libraries (LOPAC1280 and ChemBridge 50K) in a GTP binding assay. Twenty-three hits were identified and four compounds were further investigated in dose-response experiments. 3,4-Methylenedioxy-beta nitrostyrene (MNS) was demonstrated to decrease GTP binding and inhibit GTPase activity (IC50=23.92μM) while the compound N-phenylanthranilic acid increased GTP binding (EC50=4.969μM) and decreased GTPase activity. Identification of these compounds is the first step in the development of a novel PD therapeutic targeting the G-domain of LRRK2.

Substance P (SP) is an undecapeptide whose functions are as varied as its locations. In the nervous system, it is thought to act as a neurotransmitter. In the peripheral vasculature, it has hypotensive effects and it causes contraction in the smooth muscle of the gut. In salivary gland, it is a potent secretagogue and it is how this effect is transduced that is the subject of this dissertation. Activation of the SP receptor in rat submaxillary gland by SP results in the hydrolysis of inositol phospholipids and the mobilization of intracellular Ca2+. These second messengers are then able to activate a pathway(s) which results in the secretion of electrolytes, water and macromolecules. The production of these second messengers, however, is thought to require the participation of a guanine nucleotide binding protein (G protein). The G protein that couples to the SP receptor (Gp), has not yet been identified. Although several investigators have recently reported the purification of G protein α subunits that are capable of activating phospholipase C, it is not known if they couple to receptors in order to activate phospholipase C. In an effort to learn more about the mechanisms of signal transduction by SP in salivary gland, the interactions of the SP receptor with G proteins were studied. In the first study, the question of whether the SP receptor functionally couples to a G protein was investigated. Alkaline treatment was used to deplete membranes containing SP receptors of endogenous G proteins. These membranes were not capable of binding SP with high affinity. High affinity binding capability was restored in those membranes, however, by reconstituting them with exogenous G proteins. Thus, it was concluded that that SP receptor agonist affinity is regulated by a G protein. It was also determined that the G proteins (a Go/Gi mixture) used to reconstitute the membranes may not be those that couple to the SP receptor in vivo, since the reconstituted Go/Gi mixture was inactivated by treatment with pertussis toxin, while Gp was not. The next study was undertaken in an effort to identify other G proteins that are able to interact with the SP receptor. G proteins were chromatographically purified from horse submaxillary gland membranes, and assayed for characteristics that could identify one or more G proteins as potential physiological couplers to the SP receptor. G proteins were identified in fractions by the ability to bind [35S]GTPγS. These GTP-binding proteins were further characterized by testing their susceptibility to ADP- ribosylation catalyzed by pertussis toxin and their ability to restore high affinity agonist binding in membranes containing the SP receptor, but no endogenous G proteins. In addition to identifying G proteins that are substrates for pertussis toxin-catalyzed ADP-ribosylation (e.g. Go and/or Gi), a GTP-binding protein was identified which possesses characteristics that are unlike those of the well-known G proteins, Go, Gi and Gs. This protein elutes from anion exchange resins at a high salt concentration, is not susceptible to ADP- ribosylation catalyzed by pertussis toxin, is able to reconstitute high affinity binding in G protein depleted rat submaxillary gland membranes and is not recognized by antibodies to Go, Gi, Gs or Gz. Finally, a direct characterization of the G protein coupled to the SP receptor in rat submaxillary gland was undertaken. Using photo-affinity labelling techniques in conjunction with chemical crosslinking techniques, a covalent 96 kDa SP receptor complex was identified. The generation of this 96 kDa complex was inhibited by a nonhydrolyzable analog of GTP, but not a nonhydrolyzable analog of ATP. Furthermore, the complex could not be produced in membranes that had been depleted of G proteins by alkaline treatment. Reversal of the chemical crosslink yielded only the 53 kDa SP receptor, showing that the protein crosslinking to the SP receptor possesses a molecular weight of about 43 kDa. This molecular weight is typical of G protein α subunits. It was concluded that the 96 kDa crosslinked receptor complex consisted of the SP receptor, the radioiodinated SP derivative and the α subunit of Gp. The studies show that the SP receptor may be coupled to a novel G protein, whose purification characteristics differ from those of the known G proteins. Although Gp has yet to be identified, comparisons of the results of these investigations with those of several recent articles in which the purification of G protein α subunits that are capable of stimulating phospholipase C is reported, suggests that Gp is similar, if not identical to those proteins. Furthermore, this dissertation describes a unique reconstitution system and crosslinking techniques which should prove useful in the identification of Gp, as well as in the study of other receptor-G protein interactions and perhaps, the reconstitution of the receptor-G protein-phospholipase C signal transduction pathway.

Among 18 family members in the myosin superfamily, myosin IX is unique by possessing a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for Rho. It is also attention-grabbing since it is a single-headed processive motor, as well as a minus-end directed motor. Although many biochemical properties have been revealed, its physiological function is largely unknown. As an initial step to address this question, I attempted to find the binding partner of myosin IXb using the yeast two-hybrid screen. Through the screen using the tail domain of myosin IXb as bait I found BIG1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for ADP-ribosylation factor (Arfl), as a potential binding partner for myosin IXb. The interaction between myosin IXb and BIG1 was demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation of endogenous myosin IXb and BIG1 with anti-BIG1 antibodies in normal rat kidney (NRK) cells. Using the isolated proteins, it was demonstrated that myosin IXb and BIG1 directly bind to each other. Various truncation mutants of the myosin IXb tail domain were produced and it was revealed that the binding region of myosin IXb to BIG1 is the zinc finger/GAP domain. Interestingly, the GAP activity of myosin IXb was significantly inhibited by addition of BIG1 with IC50 of 0.06 μM. The RhoA binding to myosin IXb was inhibited by the addition of BIG1 with a concentration similar to that which inhibit the GAP activity. Likewise, RhoA inhibited the BIG1 binding of myosin IXb. These results suggest that BIG1 and RhoA compete with each other for the binding to myosin IXb, thus resulting in the inhibition of the GAP activity by BIG1. The present study identified BIG1, the ArfGEF, as a new binding partner for myosin IXb, which inhibited the GAP activity of myosin IXb. Together, the results imply that the RhoGAP activity of myosin IXb is down-regulated by BIG1 at the Golgi, where myosin IXb could be involved in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton through the Rho-signaling pathway.

Signal transduction by G-proteins (a heterotrimer membrane protein composed of an α, β, and γ subunit) requires that the α-subunit undergoes a transition from a GDP-bound inactive state to an activated GTP-bound state. The exchange of GDP for GTP leads to a conformational change in the α-subunit that results in the loss of affinity for the βγ subunits. We predicted that appropriate genetic manipulation of key regions of the α-subunit could result in the induction of the active conformation that would mimic at least in part the activated GTP-bound state. We have demonstrated that the substitution of the 38 amino acid residue carboxyl termimus of Gαs with the last 36 amino acid residues of Gαi2 resulted in a chimeric Gα-subunit (C4) that exhibits a constitutively active Gαs-like activity. Similarly, the substitution of the amino terminal 61 amino acid residues of Gαs with the first 54 residues of Gαi2 also resulted in a chimeric Gα-subunit that is persistently active (Gs like). We have also generated point mutations in the Gαs subunit that are comparable to the activating mutations in the ras protein. Our results suggest that point mutations in the signature sequence of the A (Val 49) and C (Thr 225) homologous regions that are implicated in regulating the GTPase activity of the molecule also resulted in the activation of the subunit. The present study has identified four key regions of the α-subunit that are critical for the activity and regulation of the Gs protein.

Modulation of Ca2+ channels is an important mechanism for regulation of synaptic strength. However, it is clear that some Ca2+ current types are insensitive to inhibitory modulation mediated by heterotrimeric G proteins (G protein inhibition), and among currents which are sensitive to G protein inhibition, there is great variation in the magnitude of Ca2+ current inhibition between cells of different origin. For the experiments in this dissertation, I utilized recently cloned Ca2+ channels to determine the minimal combination of Ca2+ channel subunits which would confer G protein sensitivity to the recombinant channels. In addition, I examined the role Ca2+ channel auxiliary subunits play in regulation of Ca2+ channel sensitivity to inhibitory G proteins, and whether channels which were sensitive to G protein inhibition were regulated equivalently by the auxiliary subunits. Finally, I investigated possible mechanisms by which these auxiliary subunits modulate G protein-mediated inhibition of Ca2+ channels. I found that α1A and α1B Ca2+ currents, when expressed in Xenopus oocytes, were sensitive to modulation by G proteins in the absence of any Ca2+ channel auxiliary subunits, while α1C currents were not modulated under the same conditions. I conclude from this data that Ca2+ channel α1 subunits are differentially sensitive to G protein modulation, and the α1 subunit of the class A and B Ca2+ channels is sufficient for G protein modulation. I also tested the ability of Ca2+ channel auxiliary subunits to modulate the magnitude of G protein-mediated inhibition Ca2+ currents. I found that the Ca2+ channel α2 subunit had no effect on the magnitude of G protein inhibition of α1A and α1B currents. However, the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit eliminated tonic G protein inhibition and sharply reduced the magnitude of muscarinic M2 receptor induced G protein inhibition of both α1A and α1B currents. I found, however, that while the magnitude of α1A and α1B current inhibition was equivalent in the absence of auxiliary subunits, the magnitude of inhibition was greater for the α1B channel after co-expression of the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit. These results indicate that the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit reduces the sensitivity of α1A and α1B Ca2+ channels to voltage-dependent G protein modulation, and does so to a greater extent for α1A channels when compared to α1B Ca2+ channels. I found that M2 receptor induced inhibition of α1B currents was more voltage-dependent after expression of the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit. Additionally, the rate relief of G protein inhibition dramatically increased after co-expression of the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit. I also co-expressed G protein subunits, and determined that inhibition of both α1B and α1Bβ3 currents was mediated by the G protein βγ subunit. Furthermore, the rate of voltage-dependent relief of G protein βγ subunit induced inhibition increased after co-expression of the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit, similar to the increased rate of relief of the M2 receptor induced G protein inhibition. These data, along with data which demonstrates that G protein inhibition results from the binding of the G protein βγ subunit to the Ca2+ channel (De Waard et al., 1997), indicate that the Ca2+ channel β3 subunit subunit reduces the magnitude of G protein inhibition of α1B Ca2+ currents by increasing the rate of dissociation of the G protein βγ subunit, such that moderate depolarizations used to activate the channel also relieve a large portion of the G protein inhibition.

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Conditions that lead to reversible growth arrest (quiescence), promote the expression of a set of genes called growth arrest specific (GAS) genes. GAS genes play a crucial role in initiating and maintaining the entry into quiescence, while also activating stress responses to help the cell overcome the effects of the stressors. Gene profiling study examining the transcriptome has shown a vast number of genes that are upregulated during quiescence, among them is GEM1 (GTP binding protein overexpressed in skeletal muscle). GEM1 transcripts were elevated 18-fold in response to quiescence. GEM1 is a small monomeric GTPase from the Ras superfamily. It is involved in regulation of cytoskeleton reorganization, and inhibition of voltage gated calcium channels that ultimately prevents hormone secretion. A preliminary study determined that GEM1 is packaged into extracellular vesicles (EV). GEM1 is also reported to promote lipid accumulation and adipogenesis in goat pre-adipocytes. GEM1 is also reported to bind transcription factors that are involved in lipid homeostasis pathways. Thus, it is probable that GEM1 may play a major role in EV formation and/or release, and lipid homeostasis. This study examined the expression of GEM1 at the protein level and validates its candidacy as a GAS gene. We also created two GEM1-shRNA retroviral constructs capable of partially downregulating GEM1 expression which can serve as a molecular tool for further characterizing the function of GEM1 in quiescent CEF. / Thesis / Bachelor of Science (BSc) / GEM1 is a small monomeric GTPase, implicated in a variety of roles in eukaryotes. It plays a role in regulating adipogenesis, and hormone secretion. Most notably it regulates cytoskeleton reorganization in response to changes in calcium concentrations. Gene profiling done by Bédard Lab identified that GEM1 transcripts were highly elevated in reversible growth arrested chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF). In this study we further explore and characterize the protein expression of GEM1 in quiescent CEF. We also design and test shRNAi retroviral constructs to downregulate GEM1 in quiescent CEF.

No description available.

No description available.

Folate, also known as vitamin B9, is an essential dietary vitamin that provides the donor group for one carbon transfer reactions. Deficiency in folate is associated with neural tube birth defects (NTDs), cancer, cardiovascular disease, and anemia. In the US enriched food products including bread, pasta, and cereal are fortified with folic acid, the synthetic analog of folate. While effective in reducing NTDs, this practice is costly and not economically practical in developing countries. Folate biofortification, increasing the natural folate level in foods by metabolic engineering, has been proposed as a sustainable alternative to food fortification with folic acid. To increase folate levels in peanut seed, GTP cyclohydrolase I from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtGCHI) was introduced into peanut by biolistic transformation. Plant transformation vectors were constructed using publicly available or licensable vector components to avoid intellectual property restrictions that hinder commercialization. Thirteen peanut cultivars were evaluated for transformation efficiencies and regeneration potential. Expression levels of the AtGCHI transgene were determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The endogenous peanut GCHI (AhGCHI) was isolated and sequenced. Studies were conducted to test whether heterologous over-expression of AtGCHI altered expression of the endogenous AhGCHI. Seed-specific expression of AtGCHI does not affect AhGCHI transcript accumulation. For validation of the proposed folate biofortification strategy, vitamin quantification will be required. A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) method was developed to identify and quantify the different forms of folate. However, additional work will be needed to determine sensitivity of the instrument, to optimize vitamin extraction, and to increase sufficient seed for vitamin extraction and analysis. Peanut products derived from folate biofortified peanut kernels will have a niche market in the United States, but there is a larger global implication as a mechanism for sustainable delivery of essential vitamins to populations that can not adopt synthetic vitamin supplementation/fortification. Successful demonstration of increased folate in peanut will result in better vitamin availability for populationssonsuming peanut based foods as a dietary staple. / Ph. D.