This research enquiry critically examines correspondences between participation in sport with the enhancement of social inclusion for young people classified as, or 'at-risk' of becoming, 'NEET' (Not in Education, Employment or Training). Whilst policy interventions to develop social inclusion within such populations often accentuate the accumulation of three forms of capital - namely human, social and positive psychological - existing literature highlights a paradoxical relationship in respect of sport being utilised in this educational manner. Consequently, some scholars suggest that participation in sport can contribute to enhanced social inclusion, whilst other contend that such participation merely produces conforming citizens who reinforce the values of the dominant neoliberal discourse. As a context to explore this paradox, the enquiry examines Sport for Change, a Comic Relief initiative, implemented within five boroughs in East London. As an emblematic exemplar of programmes designed to utilise sport in an instrumental manner to enhance social inclusion, this case presents clear potential for exploratory insights which may offer the basis for correspondences to emerge pertaining to programmes containing similar ambitions. Framed by a realist evaluative philosophy, the research consisted of semi-structured interviews conducted with 22 individuals who were associated with this specific iteration of Sport for Change. The research engaged people at various junctures of the implementation chain, most pertinently ten young males who participated at two of the sports clubs who were recipients of the intervention. The findings of this enquiry gleaned insights into the disconnected 'life-world' of young males who reside on urban residential estates, highlighting how membership of a sports club enables acceptance by a recognisable and legitimate social institution to be obtained, to initiate the process of social inclusion, and forge the trusting inter-personal relationships upon which human, social, and positive psychological capital can be developed. Consequently, the research enquiry argues that rather than the act of sports participation itself, it is these relationships, formed with club personnel who possess a community consciousness, that are critical to the enhancement of social inclusion in young people.

The Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (MTQ48; Earle, 2006) is the most utilised instrument to measure Mental Toughness (MT) in sport (Gucciardi, Hanton, & Mallett, 2012). To date, preliminary research examining the factorial validity of the MTQ48 has yielded equivocal findings (Gucciardi et al; Horsburgh, Schermer, Veselka, & Vernon, 2009) regarding its ability to measure the 4/6C’s model of MT (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002; Earle). The primary aim of this thesis was to provide a truly comprehensive examination of the factorial validity of the MTQ48 in an effort to provide an adequate measure of the 4/6C’s model of MT. Study 1 re-examined the factor structure of the MTQ48 by using a very large sample of competitive student athletes and found little support for its factorial validity. Inspection of item content revealed concerns regarding the adequacy of MTQ48 items to represent the 4/6C’s model of MT. Study 2 developed the University of Chichester Mental Toughness Questionnaire (UCMTQ) whereby items were generated to better represent the 4/6C’s model of MT. Although the UCMTQ’s factorial validity was superior to the tested models of the MTQ48, the results of Study 2 provided little support for its factorial validity. It was concluded that the poor factorial validity of the UCMTQ could have been due to the inadequacy of the factor definitions developed by Clough, Marchant, and Earle (2007) to represent the core traits underpinning the 4/6C’s model of MT (challenge, commitment, control, and confidence).

The move out of compulsory education is a key transition period in adolescents' lives. The aim of the present study was to investigate physical activity and sedentary behaviour (using 'screen time' as the proxy measure) among adolescents during the transition from completing compulsory education to entering further education, training or (un)employment. A prospective population-based longitudinal design was adopted, using a large cohort of adolescents in Gloucestershire. A questionnaire was administered to participants at two time points (baseline and follow-up). At baseline, 2204 Year 11 pupils (aged 14 to 17 years) and at follow-up, 886 participants from the baseline sample (aged 15 to 17 years) completed the questionnaire. ( For all statistical analyses performed, two sets of analysis were conducted. Analysis one included the final sample of participants (n = 663) who had an associated output area (OA) code to include in statistical analyses and analysis two included the final sample of participants (n = 834) who did not have an associated OA code included in statistical analyses. Since the overall findings for each analysis were similar, only findings from analysis one are presented. For physical activity, there was a significant change in the number of participants meeting guidelines at baseline but not meeting guidelines at follow-up. For screen time status, there was no significant change between baseline and follow-up. Binary logistic regression (BLR) revealed that for gender, in comparison to males, females were 52.4% less likely to meet guidelines for physical activity at follow-up. Meanwhile, BLR revealed that there were no significant associations with screen time status at follow-up. Further BLR for the decline in physical activity through the transition, revealed that for gender, in comparison to males, females were 42.4% less likely to move from meeting guidelines at baseline to not meeting guidelines at follow-up (i.e., physical activity decline was associated with being male). The findings of the present study have demonstrated: i) a decline in physical activity through the transition; ii) the high proportion of adolescents not meeting guidelines for screen time at either baseline or follow-up; and iii) associations between gender and physical activity during this transitional period. There is a need for future research to longitudinally examine adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behaviour during this transitional period.

Exercise dependence is described as " ... psychological and/or physiological dependence upon a regular regime of physical activity ... and is characterised by recognisable withdrawal symptoms when the need to exercise remains unfulfilled after 24-36 hours ... " (Sachs & Pargman, 1979 p. 143). The study of exercise dependence has been a focus for consideration by researchers from the disciplines of physiology and psychology for approximately 30 years. Throughout this time, researchers have sought to measure, treat and prevent exercise dependence. A disease-based model has, therefore, dominated research and an extreme form of exercise behaviour has been medicalised. This study challenges the notion of the disease concept of exercise dependence and offers an alternative conceptualisation based on situation, time (Peele, 1985) and identity. It suggests that this medicalised concept of exercise dependence arises through a process of labelling certain types of participation for which there are only individual societal rewards. In interviews (n=27) with individuals and their significant others over three phases of data collection, life history analysis of the participants' subjective experiences of exercise dependence indicates that there is no evidence of 'negative addiction' (Hailey & Bailey, 1982). There is also no evidence of a negative impact on significant other relationships, although intense commitment to exercise sometimes causes temporary periods of conflict. Significant others accommodate their partners' exercise participation within the relationship and participants accommodate relationship demands within their exercise regime. The analysis also indicates that dependent participants, 'exercisers', have a changing attitude to exercise throughout their life history. It is proposed that the participants in this study construct one element of their self-identity through their exercise participation and that is subdivided into the physical self, the critical self and the social sel£ The thesis offers nine Propositions in an attempt to establish the basis for a sociological understanding of exercise dependence.

A successful golf swing is dependent on the performance of a complex sequential action. This movement involves the feet, knees, rotation of the hips and trunk, which result in a transmission of forces and torques between the feet/shoes and the ground (Williams and Sih, 1998). The aim of this thesis was to investigate golf shoe interface aspects relevant to the golf swing process. One flat-soled, one traditional and three alternative spiked golf shoe sole interfaces were evaluated. Using a mechanical traction-testing device, specific linear forces and rotational torques were applied to the forefoot and whole-foot of the five different golf shoe sole interface designs on a grass covered force platform. Greater linear and rotational ground action forces were identified within the traditional sole (whole-foot limiting friction 1.01) and alternative sole conditions (whole-foot limiting friction Blue 1.00, Red 1.02, Yellow 1.01) when compared to a flat-soled shoe (whole-foot limiting friction 0.88). The traditional shoe was also identified to frequently produce greater friction (forefoot limiting friction 0.97) in comparison to the alternative shoe soles (forefoot limiting friction Blue 0.92, Red 0.91, Yellow 0.91). Due to the mechanical nature of the study it was important to gain an understanding of how the golf shoe sole interface interacted with the ground and if between-shoe differences were repeated when subjected to dynamic human movement during the golf swing. Dynamic analysis of the five soles identified two between shoe-sole differences (P = <.OS); Driver back foot Tz range (BW.m) (Traditional shoe (IS.98 ± 1.11) was significantly different to the Blue alternative (12.77 ± .83) and flat-soled shoe (12.73 ± .8S)); and 7iron front foot, Mz maximum time (s) (Flat-soled shoe (1.39 ± .02) was significantly different to Blue (1.72 ± .03) Red (1.71 ± .03) and Yellow (1.72 ± .04) alternative spiked shoes). The low handicap group (0-7) produced significantly slower weight transfer times (s) when compared to the medium (8-14) and high (15+) groups within all club conditions (3iron Low 0.73 ± .03, Medium 0.43 ± .02 and High 0.41 ± .02; 7iron Low 0.76 ± .01 Medium 0.S4 ± .01 and High 0.54 ± .01; Driver Low 0.70 ± .01, Medium 0.48 ± .01 and High 0.43 ± .01). However, no significant differences in forces or torques were identified between handicap groups. The findings contradict the previous mechanical testing results concluding mechanical traction tests are not an appropriate test of between shoe differences when relating the findings to the golf swing. The differences in forces created between the shoe and ground identified between the mechanical and dynamic studies was a result of the adaptation by the golfer to the footwear condition. Dynamic in-shoe pressure analysis identified regional pressures created between the golfer and shoe throughout the swing process. The highest peak pressures (N/cm2 ) were associated with the lateral regions of the front-foot from the point of ball impact (Front foot Traditional (R5) 114.33 ± 6.29 N/cm2 Back foot Traditional (R5) 7.18 ± 1.07 N/cm2) supporting previous kinematic and ground action force findings. The traditional spiked shoe produced greater in-shoe pressures within the front foot lateral mid-foot region however all sole conditions provided significantly higher pressures within specific in-shoe regions at different stages of the swing process. The comparable between shoe findings support the previous dynamic findings. The thesis enhanced current understanding of between shoe-ground and shoe-golfer interactions. Different demands were placed on the front and back shoes during the golf swing highlighting the need for asymmetrical shoe sole designs. Limited differences were identified between the different shoe sole interface designs, concluding that golf shoe interface designs are not effective for the demands of the golf swing, subsequently shoe outsole modifications were suggested.

Research (e.g. McKelvie, 1990) has shown that order of information can influence judgments. In light of equivocal findings in this research, Hogarth and Einhorn (1992) developed their belief-adjustment model to present a more detailed approach to predicting order effects. Greenlees, Dicks, Thelwell and Holder (2007) were the first to test the predictions of the belief-adjustment model in sport. The aim of this thesis was to extend Greenlees et al.'s work through a more systematic examination of order effects in sport. Specifically, the aims were to examine the generalisability of Greenlees et al.'s findings, to examine the impact of differing processing strategies on order effects, to investigate the influence of personality traits, and to consider variables that might offset order effects. To achieve these aims, four experimental studies were conducted. In Study 1, ultimate frisbee players watched DVD footage of two players (a control and target player) performing a catching and throwing drill, and assessed the ability of each target player. Participants viewed the same footage for the control player. For the target player, participants viewed the same footage, with half viewing a declining (successful to unsuccessful) performance pattern, and half viewing an ascending pattern. Study I found primacy effects when participants made one end-of-sequence (EoS) judgment. In addition, step-by-step (SbS) judgments eliminated primacy effects. Study I also controlled for the time delay inherent in making the SbS judgments, and found that SbS processing, rather than the time delays, eliminated order effects. Study 2 examined the effect of individual differences on order effects. Using the same methodology as in Study I, the impact of participants' theory of learning, level of motivation to think, and level of experience were examined.

Theoretical models of expectancy processes (e.g., Olson, Roese, & Zanna, 1996) have conceptualised the sources of information by which expectancies of others are formed, and suggest that expectancies have the potential to influence the cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses of both perceivers and targets. The main aim of this thesis was to examine expectancy effects within the coach-athlete relationship from the perspective of the athlete. Specifically, the aims were to examine: a) the sources of information that athletes deem influential when developing expectancies of a coach; b) the cognitive consequences of athletes' expectancies of coaches; c) the affective responses of athletes to initial expectancies of a coach; and d) the behavioural consequences of athletes' expectancies of their coach. In order to achieve these aims, the investigation employed a range of experimental methods including an explorative survey (study one); experimental designs, which involved obtaining athletes' ratings in response to a range of stimuli such as static photographs, written information, and dynamic video footage (studies two and three); and a field-based examination, which was assessed via a combination of notational analysis and questionnaire (study four). The main findings reveal that while static cues (e.g., gender) are deemed relatively unimportant during impression formation, dynamic cues (e.g., facial expressions) and third-party reports (e.g., reputation) are viewed by athletes as influential factors in the formation of expectancies about coaches. Specifically, the findings suggest that athletes' initial expectancies of an unknown coach's competency are influenced by the presentation of reputation information. Although the results show that coach gender also has a significant impact on athletes' expectancies, the effect of gender on athletes' expectancies was not as large as that of reputation information. In addition, reputation information is shown to significantly impact on athletes' positive affective responses to a coach. Finally, the results demonstrate that coach reputation impacts on athletes' attention, effort, and persistence during a training session. Overall, the research presented in this thesis provides support for the use of Olson et al.'s (1996) model of expectancy processes as a theoretical framework for the investigation of expectancy effects within the coach-athlete relationship. The thesis provides initial empirical support for the contention that athletes' expectancies of coaches impact on athletes' cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses. Such findings have important implications for coaching guidelines and the development of effective coach-athlete relationships. The proposal that third-party reports represent an influential source of information with regard to expectancy formation in sport has also received initial support.

Flatwater sprint kayaking performance can be assessed through the analyses of average boat velocity a paddler can produce, which has been shown to be directly linked to the levels of force production. Furthermore kayaking has been the subject of substantial level of investigation, within which research has identified that the evolution of equipment and resultantly technique has a direct effect on performance. The focus of the previous research has revolved around the upper limbs, with the trunk and lower limbs viewed as an inconsequential base around which the upper limbs move. Therefore the current thesis attempts to identify the application of the entire body during kayak paddling and clarify the importance of trunk and leg contributions to performance. A notational analysis of technique was conducted comparing novice, national and international level paddlers. International paddlers displayed significantly (P < 0.05) lower race and stroke times, as a result of significantly higher stroke rates. In addition aspects of technique were ranked from zero to five from which international paddlers displayed significantly (P < 0.05) greater trunk rotation, leg motion, stroke width, and forward reach. These findings were supplemented by the international paddlers entering the paddle significantly closer to the centre line of the kayak, while holding a fixed forward lean position of the trunk. These findings provide important factors within technique that can be identified visually; however further investigation was required to identify their importance in the development of force and kayak velocity. Consequently the development of an on-water analysis system was required to ensure a comprehensive analysis of technique. This was conducted through the combination of kinetic, 3-demensional kinematic, electromyographic and electrogoniometric analysis methods, using subjects (n = 8) with international experience. Subjects were prepared with passive surface electrodes and joint markers, and completed the testing protocol following completion of informed consent and a medical questionnaire. Statistical analysis identified that a moderate positive significant predictive relationship (R1= 0.529, P<0.05) existed between peak force and mean velocity during the left paddle stroke. Separating the trunk into thoracic and lumbar regions revealed a significant negative predictive relationship (P < 0.05) between velocity and range of lumbar spine rotation. Further significant (P < 0.05) findings were identified between activation levels of the rectus abdominus, external obliques and the production of force and velocity. The combination of these findings indicated that the lower trunk acted as a strong stable base against which force was produced increasing average kayak velocity. The activation of the left rectus femoris displayed significant relationships (P < 0.05) with force and velocity during both left and right strokes; indicating that the legs act as braces against which the force is transferred to the kayak. These findings reinforced those identified during the notational analysis, indicating that the legs and trunk play a fundamental role within the development of kayak velocity and therefore performance. It is therefore important that paddlers ensure that the musculature of the trunk and legs are used during performance and that the vital axial rotations occurring in the spine are produced in the thoracic region.

The primary aim of the present thesis was to investigate the role that individual and situational factors play in moderating the impact that pre-event expectancies have on judgements of a tennis player's performance. The current programme of research utilised a between subjects design with competitive tennis players (Studies 1 and 2) and undergraduate volunteers (Studies 3, 4 and 5) being assigned to one of four experimental conditions in each study. The results of Study 1 supported past research findings (Buscombe et al., 2006) confirming the role that body language plays in influencing the impressions formed of tennis players. However, the results did not demonstrate expectancy effects with early judgements of a performer failing to influence subsequent ratings of that individual's play. Study 2 found that the participants' level of trait confidence and trait anxiety did not moderate the impact of body language on judgements of performance. Study 3 demonstrated an interaction between body language and time pressure (F(l, 53)=12.00, p=.OOl) such that when under time pressure the participants rated the target's play more favourably having previously viewed the player displaying positive (M=42.76, SD=7.25) as opposed to negative (M=24.2S, SD=5.lS) body language. As such, it was concluded that time pressure may serve to moderate expectancy effects in sport. Study 3 also indicated that a perceiver's dispositional need for closure did not exert any influence over judgments of the performer. Study 4 demonstrated that increasing the participants' accountability for their judgements did not moderate expectancy effects. However, in line with the results of Study 3, the player's body language was seen to influence ratings of that individual's performance. Employ a reallife target performer, Study 5 demonstrated that prior knowledge of the target player's recent win/loss record influenced the participants' subsequent ratings of that individual's performance (F(l, llS)=lO.72,p=.OOl). Specifically, the participants' ratings of play were more favourable having been presented with a positive (M=41.7, SE=.S7), as opposed to a negative (M=37.74, SE=.S3) prior playing record for the performer. Overall, the thesis indicates that expectancy effects are evident in sport and that the length of time permitted to a perceiver to form a judgement of an athlete may moderate these effects. This thesis provides the first structured examination in the extant literature of the role that individual and situational factors play in moderating expectancy effects in sport. Furthermore, the thesis provides the first indication that expectancy effects may be witnessed in real-life contests between two sports performers.

An initial field based study was undertaken to measure and compare the intensity and directional sub-components of the state anxiety response in reflection to performance in cricket, in accordance with Hanin's (1980) Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning hypothesis. Following the results of the initial study, an alternative line of inquiry was followed. Subsequent investigations focused on the concept of 'repeatable good performance' as opposed to heightened performance states. More specifically, a triangulation of research studies, employing an inductive content analysis, a cultural consensus analysis and the repertory grid technique, attempted to understand what constitutes such a performance state in cricket. Additionally, the three studies attempted to establish what factors precede or are present during consistent good performance, and whether the antecedents for repeatable good performance are similar for varying roles within cricket. The triangulation generated a group of core element antecedents including: total self-confidence; optimal arousal levels; motivation and focus; and total match preparation, including, pre-match routines, set performance plans and use of imagery that are required by both batters and bowlers for the occurrence of repeatable good performance. An applied research study indicated that when the psychological requirements for repeatable good performance were included within an intervention, the potential for achieving repeatable good performance, and performance improvements, were increased. The study suggests repeatable good performance to be a viable construct within applied sport psychology. Despite such claims, further research is required to develop a scientifically valid definition of the construct, in addition to the further development of methods that allow for the identification and measurement of consistent performance.