We focus on determining the underlying physical cause of a Seyfert galaxy's appearance as type a 1.8 or 1.9. Are these "intermediate" Seyfert types typical Seyfert 1 nuclei reddened by central dusty tori or by nuclear dust lanes/spirals in the narrow-line region? Or, are they similar to NGC 2992, objects that have intrinsically weak continua and weak broad emission lines? Our study compares measurements of the reddenings of the narrow and broad-line regions with each other and with the X-ray column derived from XMM Newton 0.5-10 keV spectra to determine the presence and location of dust in the line of sight for a sample of 35 Seyfert 1.8s and 1.9s. From this, we find that Seyfert 1.9s are an almost equal mix of low-flux objects with unreddened broad line regions, and objects with broad line regions reddened by an internal dust source, either the torus or dust structures on the same size scale as the narrow line region. The 1.9s that recieved this designation due to a low continuum flux state showed variable type classifications. All three of the Seyfert 1.8s in our study are probably in low continuum states. Many objects have been misclassified as Seyfert 1.8/1.9s in the past, probably due to improper [N II]/H-alpha deconvolution leading to a false detection of weak broad H-alpha.

This dissertation examines two broad topics -- emission line properties of active galactic nuclei (AGN) and the effect of hands-on, integrated science courses on student understanding of astronomy. To investigate trends in overall properties of emission lines in AGN, we apply principal component analysis (PCA) to the fluxes in the H [beta] - (O III) region of a sample of 9046 spectroscopically-identified broad-line AGN from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Data Release 5 with a redshift range of 0.1 < z < 0.56. After performing independent spectral PCA on subsets defined effectively by their (O III) equivalent width (EW), we find only the weakest (O III) objects retain the optical Fe II - (O III) anticorrelation and the correlation of EW[subscript O III] with H [beta] linewidth that have previously been found in high-luminosity AGN. The objects with strongest EW[subscript O III] do not differ from the entire data set significantly in other spectral and derived properties, such as luminosity, redshift, emission line shapes, Eddington ratio, continuum slope, and radio properties. However, our findings are consistent with previous suggestions that (O III) emission is primarily a function of covering factor of the narrow-line region. To investigate the other side of the Fe II - (O III) anticorrelation, we examine the effect of changes in the gas-phase abundance of Fe on observed variation in Fe II. Using AGN spectra from the SDSS in the redshift range of 0.2 < z < 0.35, we measure the Fe/Ne abundance of the narrow-line region (NLR) using the (Fe VII)/(Ne V) line intensity ratio. We find no significant difference in the abundance of Fe relative to Ne in the NLR as a function of Fe II/H [beta]. However, the (N II)/(S II) ratio increases by a factor of 2 with increasing Fe II strength. This indicates a trend in N/S abundance ratio, and by implication in the overall metallicity of the NLR gas, with increasing Fe II strength. We propose that the wide range of Fe II strength in AGN largely results from the selective depletion of Fe into grains in the low ionization portion of the broad-line region. We utilize photoionization models to show that the strength of the optical Fe II lines varies almost linearly with gas-phase Fe abundance, while the ultraviolet Fe II strength varies more weakly, as seen observationally. After examining the emission line properties of large samples of fairly typical AGN, we investigated the newly expanded regime of low-mass AGN (M[subscript BH] [less than or approximately equal to] 10⁶ M[subscript sun]) with respect to their emission line properties at a smaller scale. We utilize the high spectral resolution and small aperture of our Keck data of 27 low-mass AGN, taken with the Echellette Spectrograph and Imager, to isolate the NLRs of these low-mass black holes. Some of these low-luminosity objects plausibly represent examples of the low-metallicity AGN described by Groves et al. (2006), based on their (N II)/H[alpha] ratios and their consistency with the Kewley & Ellison (2008) mass-metallicity relation. We also find that these low-mass AGN have steeper UV continuum slopes than more-massive AGN based on their He II/H[beta] ratio. Overall, NLR emission lines in these low-mass AGN exhibit trends similar to those seen in AGN with higher-mass BHs, such as increasing blueshifts and broadening with increasing ionization potential. Additionally, we see evidence of an intermediate line region whose intensity correlates with L/L[subscript Edd] in these objects, as seen in higher-mass AGN. We highlight the interesting trend that, at least in these low-mass BHs, the (O III) EW is highest in symmetric NLR lines with no blue wing. This trend of increasing (O III) EW with line symmetry could be explained by a high covering factor of lower ionization gas in the NLR. We also investigate effective methods for teaching astronomy and connections between astronomical topics in student learning and understanding. After developing the curriculum for a hands-on, learner-centered astronomy course (Hands-on-Science, hereafter HoS) aimed at pre-service elementary teachers, we measure student performance in HoS compared to traditional, large lecture courses (hereafter Astro101). We utilize distractor-driven multiple choice assessments in order to quantitatively assess student understanding and evaluate the persistence or correction of common misconceptions in astronomy. We find that for the topics included in the HoS curriculum, HoS students have a higher average post-test score, and higher normalized gains, than the Astro101 students. We cannot pinpoint the exact cause of this student achievement because of the multitude of nontraditional practices incorporated into the HoS implementation. Increased time-on-task, a classroom environment structured around student discussion, or focus on conceptual understanding could each be key factors in the high achievement of HoS students. We conclude that the HoS students are better prepared in astronomy for their future careers as elementary school teachers by HoS courses than they would have been in traditional, introductory astronomy courses. When we compare directly between topics covered in both HoS and Astro101, we find that HoS students have normalized gains that are a factor of 2-4 higher than those of Astro101 students. Therefore, we conclude that curricula similar to the HoS approach would benefit Astro101 students as well, particularly for topics which are most impacted by the HoS method, such as Moon phases and seasons. Lastly, a PCA of the changes in HoS student scores reveals that there is very little systematic student variation apart from the trends apparent in the mean changes in the sample. Thus, we do not find groupings of questions that some subsets of students systematically learn more readily than others. Another way to interpret this result is that the HoS curriculum and methodology indiscriminately help all kinds of pre-service elementary teachers, despite presumptive differences in their own learning styles and strengths. / text

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This thesis is a theoretical study of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) in merging galaxies. We consider the dynamics that govern inspiralling SMBH pairs and gravitational-wave (GW) recoiling SMBHs, as well as the fueling of active galactic nuclei (AGN) during galaxy mergers. In particular, we focus on the observable signatures that could distinguish dual or recoiling AGN from those in isolated galaxies, and we explore the implications of these events for the coordinated evolution of SMBHs and galaxies. In the second and third chapters, semi-analytical models for GW-recoiling SMBHs are developed. The second chapter illustrates that bound recoiling SMBHs may have long wandering timescales and that recoil events can self-regulate SMBH growth. In the third chapter, we study the evolution of recoiling SMBHs in evolving, gaseous merger remnants. We find that the presence of gas greatly influences recoiling SMBH trajectories and may partially suppress even large recoil kicks in some cases. We also show that kinematically- and spatially-offset AGN can have substantial lifetimes for a wide range in kick speeds. Finally, this chapter illustrates that GW recoil influences the observed SMBH-galaxy relations as well as central star formation in the merger remnant. In the fourth chapter we turn our attention to inspiralling SMBH pairs with kiloparsec-scale separations. We use a novel approach to model the narrow-line emission from these SMBH pairs, in order to understand their relationship to observations of double-peaked narrow-line AGN. Our results indicate that double-peaked narrow-line AGN often arise from gas kinematics rather than from dual SMBH motion, but that the latter are a generic, short-lived phase of SMBH inspiral in gaseous mergers. We identify several diagnostics that could aid in distinguishing the true AGN pairs in the double-peaked sample. Finally, the fifth chapter examines a particular galaxy that exhibits signatures of both a recoiling AGN and an AGN pair. Applying methods developed throughout this thesis, we design models for both scenarios that are well-matched to the available data. Currently, neither possibility can be excluded for this object, but our models constrain the most relevant parameters for etermining its nature and for the design of future observations. / Astronomy

This thesis presents theoretical results on the tidal disruption of stars by supermassive black holes (SMBHs). The multiwavelength ares produced by tidal disruption events (TDEs) have supernova-like luminosities, and associated relativistic jets can be visible to cosmological distances. TDEs probe the demography of quiescent SMBHs, and are natural laboratories for jet launching mechanisms and super-Eddington accretion. The first chapter broadly surveys TDE physics. The second and third chapters estimate the TDE rate following gravitational wave (GW) recoil of a SMBH (after a SMBH binary merger). Immediately after GW recoil, the TDE rate increases, sometimes to \(~10^{-1}\) TDEs per year. This "burst" of TDE flares can provide an electromagnetic counterpart to low frequency GW signals, localizing sources and measuring cosmological parameters. Millions of years later, recoiled SMBHs wandering through their host galaxies will produce spatially offset TDEs at a rate which is likely detectable with the LSST. In the fourth chapter, we show that standard estimates for \(\Delta\epsilon\), the energy spread of TDE debris, are wrong, sometimes by orders of magnitude. Correcting this error reduces the observability of many TDEs. We introduce a new analytic model for tidal disruption, calculate \(\Delta\epsilon\)'s dependence on stellar spin, estimate general relativistic corrections to \(\Delta\epsilon\), and quantify the GW signal generated from tidal compression. The fifth chapter presents hydrodynamical simulations of TDE debris circularization, focusing on eccentric, rather than parabolic, orbits. General relativistic precession drives debris circularization, in contrast to past simulations using smaller black holes. In the sixth chapter, we show that TDE light curves can constrain or measure SMBH spins, as Lense-Thirring torques produce quasiperiodic variability in disk emission. Precession of a relativistic jet could also measure SMBH spin, and we apply our model to the relativistic Swift 1644+57 TDE. The seventh chapter considers the disruption of neutron stars (NSs) by stellar mass black holes (BHs) or other NSs. Jet precession in associated short-hard gamma ray bursts is uniquely possible for NS-BH (not NS-NS) mergers. We quantify typical precession amplitudes and periods, and calculate their time evolution. If disk viscosities are relatively low, electromagnetic observations alone could distinguish NS-BH from NS-NS mergers. / Astronomy

Some of the most interesting objects in the Universe are Active Galactic Nuclei. In the centre of an active galaxy is a supermassive black hole that accretes matter from the surrounding galaxy. In the process, not yet fully understood, some of the matter is ejected in two jets, perpendicular to the plane of the galaxy. The energy of the particles in the jets are extremely high, sometimes over 1019 eV. The features of an active galaxy can be very different depending on from which angle it is viewed. This means that some astronomical objects that earlier seemed to be very heterogeneous might be only different manifestations of the same type of object, namely active galactic nuclei. This thesis introduces some of these different objects. The unifying theory is described. Ways of detecting the high-energy radiation and two important instruments, H.E.S.S. and Fermi-LAT are described. Three studies of the BL Lac PKS 2155-304, an active galactic nucleus that points its jet almost straight at Earth, are made using Fermi-LAT data. The conclusion of the studies is that the source is variable at least in the time scale of days and that in order to gather further information about these objects simultaneous multi-wavelength surveys have to be done.

Πρόσφατες παρατηρήσεις με τον δορυφόρο Chandra δείχνουν ότι οι Ενεργοί Γαλαξιακοί Πυρήνες (AGN) πιθανόν να κατανέμονται διαφορετικά στον χώρο από ότι οι συνηθισμένοι γαλαξίες, ιχνηλατώντας πυκνές περιοχές του Σύμπαντος. Στην παρούσα διατριβή παρουσιάζουμε την πλέον λεπτομερή ανάλυση που έχει ποτέ πραγματοποιηθεί, τόσο σε πλήθος δεδομένων όσο και μεθόδων ανάλυσης, των Κοσμολογικών Δομών σε πεδία του δορυφόρου ακτίνων-Χ Chandra. Συγκεκριμένα αναλύουμε α) την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης σε διαφορετικές ερυθρές μετατοπίσεις και διαφορετικές φωτεινότητες β) υπολογίζουμε την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης για τις πηγές για τις οποίες υπάρχουν φασματοσκοπικές οπτικές παρατηρήσεις και διερευνούμε πιθανή εξάρτηση της σμηνοποίησης με την φωτεινότητα, την απορρόφηση και το οπτικό χρώμα γ) υπολογίζουμε την γωνιακή συνάρτηση συσχέτισης των AGN και την συγκρίνουμε, μέσω της εξίσωσης Limbers με την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης που έχει υπολογιστεί απευθείας. Τα αποτελέσματα της διδακτορικής αυτής διατριβής συμβάλλουν σημαντικά στην κατανόηση τόσο της κατανομής της ύλης στο Σύμπαν όσο και του τρόπου με τον οποίο πυροδοτείται το φαινόμενο των Ενεργών Γαλαξιακών Πυρήνων. Χρησιμοποιώντας το μεγαλύτερο δείγμα πηγών ακτίνων Χ που έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί ποτέ με τον δορυφόρο Chandra, ανιχνεύουμε τις Δομές Μεγάλης Κλίμακας. Συγκεκριμένα υπολογίσαμε την χωρική συνάρτηση 2 σημείων για 1466 AGN που έχουν ανιχνευθεί στις ακτίνες Χ, αξιοποιώντας τα πεδία Chandra Deep Fields (CDFs) , ECDF-S, COSMOS και AEGIS στο ενεργειακό εύρος (0.5 − 8 keV). Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν φασματοσκοπικές ερυθρομεταθέσεις στο εύρος 0 < z < 3 για τις πηγές ακτίνων Χ με μέση τιμή ερυθρομετάθε- σης z = 0.976. Αναλύοντας την χωρική συνάρτηση σε δύο συνιστώσες, μια παράλληλη και μία κάθετη στην οπτική διεύθυνση λόγω των ιδιάζουσων ταχυτήτων, που οφείλονται στο τοπικό βαρυτικό δυναμικό και προκαλούν στρέβλωση στις θέσεις των αντικειμένων στο χώρο των ερυθρομεταθέσεων, υπολογίσαμε το χαρακτηριστικό μέγεθος της σμηνοποίησης r0 στην τιμή r0 = 7.3 ± 0.6h−1Mpc με κλίση γ = 1.48 ± 0.12. Η τιμή αυτή αντιστοιχεί στην τιμή της παραμέτρου που συνδέει τις διαταραχές πυκνότητας μεταξύ της φωτεινής με την σκοτεινή ύλη και ονομάζεται παράμετρος bias, b(z) = 2.26 ± 0.16. Χρησιμοποιώντας δύο διαφορετικά εξελικτικά μοντέλα bias εκτιμήσαμε την μάζα της άλω της σκοτεινής ύλης που είναι εμβαπτισμένοι οι Ενεργοί Γαλαξίες ακτίνων Χ, με τιμή Mh = 13(±0.3)×1013h−1M⊙. Η τιμή της παραμέτρου b όπως και η αντίστοιχη μάζα της άλω είναι εμφανώς μεγαλύτερη από την αντίστοιχη μάζα σκοτεινής ύλης που περικλείει τους Ενεργούς Γαλαξίες που έχουν ανιχνευθεί στο οπτικό μέρος του φάσματος, για την ίδια ερυθρομετάθεση. Χωρίζοντας το δείγμα των AGN στις ακτίνες Χ σε διαφορετικές περιοχές ερυθρομεταθέσεων, και παρατηρώντας την τιμή του bias πως εξελίσσεται σε συνάρτηση με την ερυθρομετάθεση, σε συμφωνία με πρόσφατες μελέτες, διαπιστώσαμε ότι μία μοναδική μέση τιμή μάζας άλω σκοτεινής ύλης δεν αναπαράγει τα δεδομένα σε όλες τις ερυθρομεταθέσεις. Επιπλέον γύρω από ερυθρομετάθεση z ∼ 1, μελετώντας 650 πηγές ακτίνων Χ, και λαμβάνοντας υπ’ όψιν την εξάρτηση της σμηνοποίησης με την ερυ- θρομετάθεση, βρήκαμε ενδείξεις εξάρτησης της σμηνοποίησης με την φωτεινότητα στις ακτίνες Χ, δηλαδή ότι οι πιο φωτεινές πηγές παρουσιάζουν μεγαλύτερο χαρακτηριστικό μέγεθος σμηνοποίησης r0 και κατά συνέπεια εδράζονται σε άλω σκοτεινής ύλης μεγαλύτερης μάζας. Οι παραπάνω διαπιστώσεις είναι σύμφωνες με το κοσμολογικό μοντέλο στο οποίο το αέριο που τροφοδοτεί με μάζα την υπερμαζική μελανή οπή, για μέσης φωτεινότητας AGN, προέρχεται κυρίως από το νέφος θερμού αερίου που βρίσκεται στην άλω του γαλαξία που εδράζεται η μελανή οπή. Ο πληθυσμός όμως των AGN δεν είναι ομοιογενής ως προς την απορρόφηση. Προκειμένου να εξετάσουμε τα διάφορα προτεινόμενα μοντέλα για AGN που εμπεριέχουν την απορρόφηση καθώς και να συγκρίνουμε με προηγούμενες μελέτες σμηνοποίησης ως προς την παράμετρο της απορρόφησης αναλύουμε την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης δύο σημείων, για πηγές ακτίνων Χ, με φασματοσκοπική πληροφορία. Η μελέτη συμπεριλαμβάνει τα πεδία CDF-N, CDF-S, AEGIS, ECDF-S, και COSMOS για την συνολική ενεργειακή περιοχή 0.5 − 10kev για το εύρος ερυθρομεταθέσεων 0.6 < z < 1.4, την εποχή δηλαδή που εμφανίζεται η μέγιστη πυκνότητα πληθυσμού AGN. Αξιοποιώντας την φασματοσκοπική πληροφορία που μας παρέχεται από τα 5 πεδία, το δείγμα πηγών αποτελείται από 359 πηγές που είναι απορροφημένες στις ακτίνες Χ και 371 πηγές που είναι μη απορροφημένες στις ακτίνες Χ. Υπολογίζοντας την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης διαπιστώσαμε ότι τόσο τα μη απορροφημένα AGN στις ακτίνες Χ όσο και τα απορροφημένα AGN στις ακτίνες Χ παρουσιάζουν παρόμοιο χαρακτηριστικό μέγεθος σμηνοποίησης, γεγονός συμβατό με το μοντέλο ενοποίησης των AGN. Επιπλέον συγκρίνουμε τα αποτελέσματα με τα αντίστοιχα για AGN που διαχωρίζονται ως προς την απορρόφηση στο υπέρυθρο. Ο διαχωρισμός των AGN ως προς το υπέρυθρο στηρίζεται στην διαφορά του δείκτη χρώ- ματος ανάμεσα στο οπτικό (R περιοχή) και στο υπέρυθρο (4.5μm). Τα χρώματα δηλαδή προέρχονται από περιοχές του ξενιστή γαλαξία και του τόρου, και δεν ”αγγίζουν” την μελανή οπή όπως οι ακτίνες Χ. Οι διαφορές που προκύπτουν ανάμεσα στα δύο κριτήρια εξηγούνται λόγω της συνεισφοράς της ακτινοβολίας του ξενιστή γαλαξία και επηρεάζει πολύ σημαντικά το κριτήριο που διαχωρίζει τα απορροφημένα και μη AGN, με βάση την απορρόφηση στο υπέρυθρο. Για τον υπολογισμό απευθείας της χωρικής συνάρτησης συσχέτισης χρειαζόμαστε επισκόπηση στο οπτικό που θα παρέχει φασματοσκοπική πληροφορία είτε ακριβείς φωτομετρικές μετρήσεις που είναι δύσκολο να επιτευχθούν λόγω των σφαλμάτων που εμπεριέχουν. Ακόμα καλύτερη στατιστική μπορεί να επιτευχθεί υπολογίζοντας την γωνιακή συνάρτηση συσχέτισης (ACF). Με την συγκεκριμένη μέθοδο αξιοποιούμε όλες τις πη- γές που έχουν ανιχνευθεί και όχι μόνο αυτές που έχουν φασματοσκοπική πληροφορία. Μέσω της εξίσωσης Limbers μπορούμε να αναχθούμε από την γωνιακή στην χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης. Τα αποτελέσματα όμως που προκύπτουν από προηγούμενες μελέτες στις ακτίνες Χ, έρχονται σε αντίθεση με τις μελέτες που υπολογίζουν απευθείας την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης. Όλες οι μελέτες που αξιοποιούν την γωνιακή συνάρτηση συσχέτισης βρίσκουν συστηματικά μεγάλα χωρικά μήκη σμηνοποίησης. Ένας τρόπος για την περαιτέρω διερεύνηση είναι να εξετάσουμε τον υπολογισμό απο κοινού της γωνιακής και της χωρικής συνάρτησης συσχέτισης για τον ίδιο σύνολο αντικειμένων. Στην παρούσα μελέτη υπολογίζουμε την χωρική συνάρτηση συσχέτισης για τα πεδία AEGIS και ECDFS χρησιμοποιώντας 312 και 228 πηγές αντίστοιχα με φασματοσκοπική πληροφορία. Στην συνέχεια υπολογίζουμε την γωνιακή συνάρτηση συσχέτισης των ίδιων πηγών και την ανάγουμε στην χωρική χρησιμοποιώντας εναλλακτικά είτε την κατανομή ερυθρομετάθεσης όπως αυτή προκύπτει από την συνάρτηση φωτεινότητας, είτε όπως αυτή εξάγεται απευθείας από τα παρατηρησιακά δεδομένα. Χρησιμοποιώντας τον κατάλληλο μαθηματικό φορμαλισμό για κοσμολογία ΛCDM, διαπιστώνουμε για πρώτη φορά ότι η γωνιακή συνάρτηση συσχέτισης ανάγεται στην αντίστοιχη χωρική με αρκετά μεγάλη ακρίβεια. Επειδή ο μηχανισμός επαύξησης ύλης στην μελανή οπή επηρεάζεται άμεσα από το εγγύς περιβάλλον, επομένως επηρεάζεται και το χρώμα του ξενιστή γαλαξία, ένας στατιστικός τρόπος εξέτασης απευθείας του περιβάλλοντος είναι η μελέτη της χωρικής συνάρτησης συσχέτισης. Η μελέτη αυτή στηρίζεται επίσης στην ανάλυση των πηγών των ακτίνων Χ των πεδίων CDF-N, CDF-S, ECDFS-S, AEGIS και COSMOS για το ενεργειακό εύρος 0.5 − 10keV σε εύρος ερυθρομεταθέσεων 0.6 < z < 1.4 με την επιπλέον πληροφορία του δείκτη χρώματος U − B όπως επίσης και του απόλυτου μεγέθους στο κυανό MB. Διαχωρίζοντας το δείγμα ανάλογα με το χρώμα στο οπτικό σε μπλε και κόκκινους, διαπιστώσαμε ότι τα AGN που εδράζονται σε κόκκινους ξενιστές γαλαξίες έχουν μεγαλύτερα r0 και επομένως βρίσκονται σε πυκνότερα περιβάλλοντα σε σχέση με τα AGN που εδράζονται σε μπλε ξενιστές γαλαξίες. Διερευνώντας εάν το παρατηρούμενο χρώμα στο οπτικό επηρεάζεται απο την απορρόφηση των AGN ακτίνων Χ, και το κατά πόσο το κόκκινο χρώμα οφείλεται αποκλειστικά στο γηραιό αστρικό πληθυσμό ή οφείλεται στη σκόνη, διαπιστώσαμε ότι η σκόνη που μπορεί να οφείλεται σε αστρογέννεση επηρεάζει σε σημαντικό βαθμό το χρώμα των κόκκινων ξενιστών γαλαξιών. Επομένως ο διαχωρισμός των AGN ανάλογα με το χρώμα που εμφανίζουν στο οπτικό μέρος του φάσματος, δεν είναι ξεκάθαρος, κατά συνέπεια δεν μπορούμε να καταλήξουμε σε ασφαλή συμπεράσματα αν το περιβάλλον στο οποίο εδράζονται, επηρεάζει το χρώμα του ξενιστή γαλαξία. / Over the last decade Chandra extragalactic surveys indicate that AGN are distributed in space in different way than the normal galaxies, tracing denser regions of the Universe. In this thesis we provide the most accurate estimate for data analysis methods using sources compiled from Chandra satellite. Specifically a) we estimate the spatial two point correlation function in different redshift and luminosity intervals b) using the spectroscopic redshift information we derive the spatial correlation function and we investigate possible dependence of clustering on luminosity, on obscuration and on optical color c) we perform an angular correlation function analysis and via Limber’s equation, we compare with the direct measurements of spatial clustering. These results are not only important for constraining the accretion history of the Universe but they may also hold the key for understanding how galaxies evolve. Using the largest X-ray selected AGN sample used so far for this scope, we present the spatial clustering properties of 1466 X-ray selected AGN compiled from the Chandra CDF-N, CDF-S, ECDF-S, COSMOS and AEGIS fields in the 0.5 − 2keV band. The Xray sources span the redshift interval 0 < z < 3 and have a median value of z = 0.976. We employ the projected two point correlation function, in order to avoid the distorting effect of peculiar velocities, to infer the spatial clustering and we found a clustering length of r0 = 7.3 ± 0.6h−1 Mpc and a slope of γ = 1.48 ± 0.12 which corresponds to a bias b(z) = 2.26 ± 0.16, i.e the value that encapsulates how extragalactic sources trace the underlying mass fluctuation field. Using two different halo bias models, we consistently estimate an average dark-matter host halo mass of Mh = 13(±0.3) × 1013h−1M⊙. The X-ray AGN bias and the corresponding dark matter host halo mass, are significantly higher than the corresponding values of optically selected AGN, at the same redshifts. The redshift evolution of the X-ray selected AGN bias indicates, in agreement with other recent studies that a unique dark-matter halo mass does not fit well the bias at all the different redshifts probed. Furthermore we investigate if there is a dependence of the clustering strength on X-ray luminosity. To this end we consider only 650 sources around z ∼ 1 and we apply a procedure to disentangle the dependence of clustering on redshift. We find indications for a possible dependence of the clustering length on X-ray luminosity in the sense that the more luminous sources have a larger clustering length and hence a higher dark-matter halo mass. These findings appear to be consitent with a galaxy-formation model where the gas accreted onto the Supermassive Black Hole (SMBH) in intermediate luminosity AGN, comes mostly from the hot halo atmosphere around the host galaxy. But the AGN population is not homogeneous in terms of their obscuration properties. In order to investigate several models which include obscuration for the formation and evolution of AGN, and to compare with several studies which have attempted to measure the clustering of obscured and unobscured AGN we perform a spatial correlation function analysis. We present hte clustering properties of 371 unobscured and 359 obscured X-ray selected (0.5−10keV) AGN with spectroscopic redshifts. These are found in the CDF-N, CDF-S, ECDF-S, COSMOS and AEGIS fields in the redshift interval 0.6 < z < 1.4. We found that both samples have identical clustering lengths. This result supports the unification models. Furthermore we compare our findings with recent results that base the obscured and unobscured AGN classification on the optical/IR colour (R − 4.5 > 6.1). We find that the two selection criteria above, select different obscured AGN samples. In particular reddened AGN with R − 4.5 > 6.1 are divided almost equally between X-ray obscured and unobscured AGN. In order to derive directly the spatial clustering length for a large sample of X-ray AGN an extensive spectroscopy campaign is required or high quality of photometric redshift measurements. Even better statistics can be provided by the angular correlation function (ACF). With this method we make use all the available sources, not only those having spectroscopic redshifts. Several studies have explored the angular clustering of AGN in x-ray wavelengths. These studies measure the projected angular clustering and then via Limber’s equation derive the corresponding spatial clustering length. These results contradict with the direct measurements of clustering, with all the angular correlation analyses finding systematically large correlation amplitudes. A way to break this impasse is to derive both the angular and spatial clustering for the same set of objects. In this study we derive the spatial correlation function in the AEGIS and ECDF-S fields using 312 and 258 sources with spectroscopic redshift information. Then we derive the ACF for exactly the same sources, to infer the spatial correlation length, using in one case the redshift distribution providing from luminosity function and in other case the redshift distribution as it observed from the sources with spectroscopic redshifts. Using the appropriate evolution model for a ΛCDM cosmology, we find for the first time that the clustering length derived from the spatial correlation function matches that derived from the angular correlation function. It is now well established that there is an interplay between the evolution of galaxies and the accretion of SMBH that hosts. Since the triggering of AGN is affected from the close environment, it is possible that color of the the host galaxy of AGN is also affected. In order to examine possible dependence of clustering of AGN on host galaxy color we present the clustering properties of 308 X-ray selected sources in blue host galaxies and 172 X-ray AGN in red host galaxies, in the 0.5 − 10keV. These are found in the CDF-N, CDF-S, ECDF-S, COSMOS and AEGIS fields in the redshift interval 0.6 < z < 1.4. We derive red and blue X-ray AGN from their optical colors of the host galaxy. We distinguish AGN host red and AGN host blue using the observed color bimodality in the whole sample using the information of color magnitude space. We perform a spatial correlation function analysis for the two samples and we found that X-ray AGN red host are clustered significantly higher than the AGN blue host. Further examination of the AGN red host indicates that is a mixed population, since encapsulates a significant fraction of obscured high X-ray luminosity and star forming sources.

Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) are compact regions in the centers of some galaxies. They emit significantly in the whole range of the electromagnetic spectrum and show variability at different timescales. Observational evidence suggests the presence of a dusty torus obscuring the central radiation source of AGN. According to the Unified Model the observed general properties of AGN emission can be understood on the basis of orientation of this torus toward an observer. Two main types of AGN are distinguished: Type 1, with detected emission from the inner torus cavity viewed pole-on, and Type 2, viewed through the obscuring torus. There are numerous attempts in the past decade to model the emission from the torus, considering a homogeneous distribution of dust. However, important problems in explaining the observations still remain unsolved: it is hard to suppress the 10 m emission feature of silicate dust for a pole-on view and at the same time produce an absorption feature for an edge-on viewed torus; despite the huge optical depths inferred from X-ray observations of Type 2 sources, the observed absorption feature is shallow. Unlike observations, models of homogeneous tori with large optical depths always produce deep absorption feature. While it is realized that dust contained in clumps would resolve these issues, modeling of a clumpy medium poses a serious computational challenge. We are the first to incorporate clumps in our model of a dusty torus and to successfully explain the infrared emission from AGN. We model two types of clouds: directly illuminated by the AGN and diffusely heated by other clouds. We calculate the emission of the first type as angle-averaged emission from a dusty slab. The second type of clouds is modeled as dusty spheres embedded in the radiation field of the directly heated clouds. The radiative transfer problem for a dusty slab and externally heated sphere is solved exactly with our code DUSTY. The overall emission of the torus is found by integration over the spatial distribution of clouds. We find a very good agreement of our model results with observations. Comparison with them can constrain the physical conditions in the AGN dusty tori.

All classes of Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) are fundamentally powered by accretion of gas onto a supermassive black hole. The process converts the potential energy of the infalling matter to X-ray and ultraviolet (UV) radiation, releasing up to several 1012 solar luminosities. Observations show that the accreting "central engines" in AGN are surrounded by dusty matter. The dust occupies a "torus" around the AGN which is comprised of discrete clumps. If the AGN radiation is propagating through the torus on its way to an observer, it will be heavily re-processed by the dust, i.e. converted from UV to infrared (IR) wavelengths. Much of the information about the input radiation is lost in this conversion process while an imprint of the dusty torus is left in the released IR photons. Our group was the first to formulate a consistent treatment of radiative transfer in a clumpy medium an important improvement over simpler models with smooth dust distributions previously used by researchers. Our code CLUMPY computes spectral energy distributions (SED) for any set of model parameters values. Fitting these models to observed AGN SEDs allows us to determine important quantities, such as the torus size, the spatial distribution of clumps, the torus covering factor, or the intrinsic AGN luminosity. Detailed modeling also permits us to study the complex behavior of certain spectral features. IR radiative transfer introduces degeneracies to the solution space: different parameter values can yield similar SEDs. The geometry of the torus further exacerbates the problem. Knowing the amount of parameter degeneracy present in our models is important for quantifying the confidence in data fits. When matching the models to observed SEDs we must employ modern statistical methods. In my research I use Bayesian statistics to determine the likely ranges of parameter values. I have developed all tools required for fitting observed SEDs with our large model database: the latest implementation of CLUMPY, the fit algorithms, the Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampler, and the Bayesian estimator. In collaboration with observing groups we have applied our methods to a multitude of real-life AGN.

We investigate three separate topics associated with the formation and evolution of the stellar mass component in galaxy clusters. The work presented herein is based primarily on optical imaging and spectra taken with, respectively, the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope and Gemini North/South. We confront the result from the optical data analysis with the results from the analysis of high-resolution X-ray data taken with the Chandra and XMM-Newton space observatories. Confirming earlier results, we find that 22% of brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) show central inversions in their optical color profiles (blue-cores), indicative of recent star formation or AGN activity. Based on the extended sizes of the blue-core regions we favour recent star formation. Comparison with the host cluster central entropies (and other X-ray properties) demonstrates that the source of cold gas required to fuel the recent activity in BCG cores is direct condensation from the rapidly cooling intra-cluster medium. We measure the giant-to-dwarf ratio (GDR) of red sequence galaxies in a sample of 97 clusters to constrain its evolution over the redshift range 0.05 < z < 0.55. We find that the GDR is evolving and can be parameterized by GDR=(0.88 +/- 0.15)z+(0.44 +/- 0.03). We find that the intrinsic scatter in this relation is consistent with zero, after accounting for measurement error, Poisson noise and contributions from large-scale structure. After correcting for cluster mass effects we investigate the evolution of the individual dwarf and giant populations in order to probe the source of the observed GDR evolution. Beyond z=0.25 the GDR evolution is driven by an increase in the number of dwarfs (consistent with interpretations from the literature), however, below z=0.2 the GDR evolution is caused by a significant reduction in the number of giants. We interpret this a evidence for a significant number of major mergers in the giant population at late times. This is supported by the relatively short dynamical friction timescales for these galaxies. We use velocity-broadened stellar template models to fit the optical spectra of 19 BCGs in order to measure their the line-of-sight component of their central velocity dispersions (sigma). The sigma values are combined with previous measurements of effective radii re and effective surface brightness <I>e to investigate the properties of the BCG fundamental plane. We measure a BCG fundamental plane parameterized by log( re )= alpha log( sigma ) + beta log( <I>e ) + gamma, with best fit parameters alpha = 1.24 +/- 0.08, beta = -0.80 +/- 0.1 and gamma = (0.3 +/- 2.0)x10-4. We constrain the intrinsic scatter in this relation to be deltaint = 0.066 +/- 0.010 in re, consistent with previous measures of the scatter in the fundamental plane for regular cluster ellipticals. Comparing the slope parameters (alpha, beta) of the BCG FP to those from previous studies of the FP for regular cluster ellipticals, we find that there is no conclusive evidence for curvature in the unified FP. We use the sigma measurements to estimate the BCG dynamical masses Mdyn. Comparing these estimates with mass proxies for the clusters (Tx, ng) we find that BCG mass is independent of cluster mass with Mdyn = (2.9 +/- 1.8)x1012 solar masses. / Graduate / 0606 / 0605 / bildfell@uvic.ca