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Formation of supermassive black holes / Formation de trous noirs supermassifsHabouzit, Mélanie 15 September 2016 (has links)
Des trous noirs supermassifs (TNs) de plusieurs millions de masses solaires occupent le centre de la plupart des galaxies proches. La découverte du TN Sagittarius A* au centre de notre galaxie, La Voie lactée, l'a confirmé. Pour autant, certaines galaxies semblent dépourvues de TNs (par exemple NGC205, M33), ou alors ne posséder un TN que de quelques milliers de masses solaires. D'autre part, des TNs dans leur forme la plus lumineuse, appelés quasars, dont la luminosité est plus importante que des centaines de fois celle d'une galaxie toute entière, ont été observés à très grand décalage spectral, lorsque l'Univers n'était alors âgé que d'un milliard d'années. Les modèles de formation des TNs doivent expliquer à la fois l'existence des TNs de faibles masses observés aujourd'hui dans les galaxies de faibles masses, mais aussi leur prodigieux homologues quasars dans l'Univers jeune. La formation des TNs pose encore de nos jours de nombreuses questions: comment se forment les TNs au début de l'histoire de l'Univers? Quelle est leur masse initiale? Quelle est la masse minimale d'une galaxie pour posséder un TN? Pour répondre à ces questions et pour étudier la formation des TNs dans le contexte de l'évolution des galaxies, nous avons utilisé des simulations hydrodynamiques cosmologiques, qui offrent l'avantage de suivre l'évolution temporelle de nombreux processus comme la formation stellaire, l'enrichissement en métaux, les mécanismes de rétroactions des TNs et des supernovae. J'ai particulièrement dirigé mes recherches sur les trois principaux modèles de formation des TNs à partir du reliquat des premières étoiles, d'amas d'étoiles, ou encore par effondrement direct. / Supermassive black holes (BHs) harboured in the center of galaxies have been confirmed with the discovery of Sagittarius A* in the center of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Recent surveys indicate that BHs of millions of solar masses are common in most local galaxies, but also that some local galaxies could be lacking BHs (e.g. NGC205, M33), or at least hosting low-mass BHs of few thousands solar masses. Conversely, massive BHs under their most luminous form are called quasars, and their luminosity can be up to hundred times the luminosity of an entire galaxy. We observe these quasars in the very early Universe, less than a billion years after the Big Bang. BH formation models therefore need to explain both the low-mass BHs that are observed in low-mass galaxies today, but also the prodigious quasars we see in the early Universe.BH formation is still puzzling today, and many questions need to be addressed: How are BHs created in the early Universe? What is their initial mass? How many BHs grow efficiently? What is the occurrence of BH formation in high redshift galaxies? What is the minimum galaxy mass to host a BH? We have used cosmological hydrodynamical simulations to capture BH formation in the context of galaxy formation and evolution. Simulations offer the advantage of following in time the evolution of galaxies, and the processes related to them, such as star formation, metal enrichment, feedback of supernovae and BHs. We have particularly focused our studies on the three main BH formation models: Pop III remnant, stellar cluster, and direct collapse models.
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Statistical analysis of large scale surveys for constraining the Galaxy evolution / Analyse statistique des grands relevés pour contraindre l'évolution galactiqueMachado murtinheiras martins, Andre 09 December 2014 (has links)
La formation et l'évolution du disque épais de la Voie Lactée restent controversées. Nous avons utilisé un modèle de synthèse de la population de la Galaxie, le Modèle de la Galaxie de Besançon (Robin et al., 2003), qui peut être utilisé pour l'interprétation des données, étudier la structure galactique et tester différents scénarios de formation et évolution Galactique. Nous avons examiné ces questions en étudiant la forme et la distribution de métallicité du disque mince et du disque épais en utilisant l'approche de synthèse de la population. Nous avons imposé sur des simulations les erreurs d'observation et les biais afin de les rendre directement comparables aux observations. Nous avons corrigé les magnitudes et les couleurs des étoiles de la simulation, en utilisant un modèle d'extinction. Les modèles d'extinction disponibles ne reproduisent pas toujours la quantité exacte d'extinction le long de la ligne de visée. Un programme a été développé pour corriger la distribution de l'extinction en fonction de la distance le long de ces lignes. Les extinctions correctes ont ensuite été appliquées sur les simulations du modèle. Nous avons étudié la forme du disque mince en utilisant des données photométriques aux basses latitudes du sondage SDSS-SEGUE. Nous avons comparé qualitativement et quantitativement les observations et les simulations et nous avons essayé de contraindre la fonction de masse initiale. En utilisant la spectroscopie du relevé SEGUE, nous avons sélectionné les étoiles du turn-off de la séquence principale (MSTO) (Cheng et al 2012) et des géantes K pour étudier la distribution de métallicité du disque mince et du disque épais. Nous avons calculé une estimation de distance pour chaque étoile à partir de la relation entre les températures effectives et magnitudes absolues pour les catalogues observés et simulés. Ces deux catalogues ont les mêmes biais sur les distances, elles sont donc comparables. Nous avons développé un outil basé sur une méthode MCMC-ABC pour déterminer la distribution de la métallicité et étudier les corrélations entre les paramètres ajustés. Nous avons confirmé la présence d'un gradient de métallicité radiale de -0.079 ± 0.015 dex kpc−1 pour le disque mince. Nous avons obtenu une métallicité du disque épais au voisinage solaire de -0.47 ± 0.03 dex, compatible avec les résultats obtenus par les études précédentes. De plus, le disque épais ne montre pas de gradient, mais les données sont compatibles avec un gradient positif intérieur suivi d'un négatif extérieur. Nous avons ensuite appliqué les outils développés au relevé spectroscopique Gaia-ESO et calculé la distribution de métallicité des étoiles F/G/K dans le disque mince et épais en supposant une formation en deux époques du disque épais de la Voie Lactée. Nous avons obtenu une métallicité locale dans le disque épais de -0.23 ± 0.04 dex légèrement plus élevée que celle obtenue avec SEGUE mais en accord avec Adibekyan et al. (2013) et un gradient de métallicité radiale du disque épais en accord avec notre analyse précédente des données de SEGUE et la littérature. La métallicité locale est en accord avec la littérature au niveau de 3σ mais parce que les données GES sont préliminaires, une analyse plus approfondie avec plus de données et de meilleurs calibrations doit être faite. L'existence d'un gradient plat dans le disque épais peut être une conséquence d'une formation à partir d’un gaz turbulent et bien homogène, ou bien un fort mélange radial a brassé après coup les étoiles. / The formation and evolution of the thick disc of the Milky Way remain controversial. We made use of a population synthesis model of the Galaxy, the Besançon Galaxy Model (Robin et al. 2003), which can be used for data interpretation, study the Galactic structure and test different scenarios of Galaxy formation and evolution. We examined these questions by studying the shape and the metallicity distribution of the thin and thick disc using the population synthesis approach. We imposed on simulations observational errors and biases to make them directly comparable to observations. We corrected magnitudes and colors of stars, from the simulation, using an extinction model. The available extinction models do not always reproduce the exact quantity of extinction along the line of sight. A code to correct the distribution of extinction in distance along these lines have been developed and the corrected extinctions have been applied on model simulations. We studied the shape of the thin disc using photometric data at low latitudes from the SDSS-SEGUE survey. We compared qualitatively and quantitatively observations and simulations and try to constrain the Initial Mass Function. Using the spectroscopic survey SEGUE we selected Main Sequence Turnoff (MSTO) stars (Cheng et al 2012) and K giants to study the metallicity distribution of the thin and thick discs. We computed a distance for each star from the relation between effective temperatures and absolute magnitudes for the observed and simulated catalogs. These two catalogues have the same biases in distances, therefore are comparable. We developed a tool based on a MCMC-ABC method to determine the metallicity distribution and study the correlations between the fitted parameters. We confirmed a radial metallicity gradient of -0.079 ± 0.015 dex kpc−1 for the thin disc. We obtained a solar neighborhood metallicity of the thick disc of -0.47 ± 0.03 dex similar to previous studies and the thick disc shows no gradient but the data are compatible with an inner positive gradient followed by a outer negative one. Furthermore, we have applied the developed tools to the Gaia-ESO spectroscopic survey and computed the metallicity distribution of F/G/K stars in the thin and thick disc assuming a two epoch formation for the thick disc of the Milky Way. We obtained a local metallicity in the thick disc of -0.23 ± 0.04 dex slightly higher than the one obtained with SEGUE but in agreement with Adibekyan et al. (2013) and a radial metallicity gradient for the thick disc in agreement with our previous analysis of SEGUE data and the literature. The local metallicity is in fair agreement with literature at the 3σ level but because the GES data is an internal release under testing further analysis with more data and better calibrations have to be done. The existence of a flat gradient in the thick disc can be a consequence of an early formation from a highly turbulent homogeneous well mixed gas, unless it has suffered heavy radial mixing later on.
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Étude du bulbe galactique avec le Gaia-ESO survey / Study of the galactic bulge with the Gaia-ESO surveyRojas-Arriagada, Álvaro 09 September 2016 (has links)
Le bulbe Galactique, est cruciale pour comprendre les processus physiques responsables de la formationde la galaxie. L'étude spectroscopique des étoiles vieilles de faible masse permettre de caractériser endétail la chimie et la cinématique du bulbe. Dans cette thèse, nous avons utilisé des données provenantdu Gaia-ESO survey pour mener une étude détaillée du système du disque ainsi que du bulbeGalactique. La distribution de métallicité du bulbe est bimodale. La population riche en métaux montreune cinématique typique de la barre. Elle présente une caractéristique de double RC et recouvre laséquence du disque mince à haute métallicité dans le plan [Mg/Fe] vs. [Fe/H]. Nous associons cesétoiles avec celles de la barre formée à la suite de l'évolution séculaire du disque mince primordial.D'autre part, la population pauvre en métaux présente une cinématique chaude et ne participe pas à laforme en X du bulbe. Ces étoiles semblent imiter la distribution de celles du disque épais dans le plan[Mg/Fe] vs. [Fe/H]. Quand nous comparons la position en métallicité du genou de cette distribution,qui se trouve à [Fe/H]=-0.37+/-0.09 dex, elle est plus élevée de 0.6 dex par rapport au disque épais. Unmodèle d'évolution chimique permet de bien ajuster cette distribution pour les étoiles du bulbe ensupposant un épisode de formation stellaire rapide (<1 Gyr) et intense. L'origine du bulbe pauvre enmétaux reste encore relativement incomprise, mais divers projets futurs devraient permettre de faire ladistinction entre les processus violents ou ceux liés à une évolution séculaire qui ont pu contribuer à saformation / The Galactic bulge, as a massive and old Galactic component, is key to understand the physicalprocesses responsibles for the formation of the Galaxy. The spectroscopic study of long lived low massstars represents an opportunity to characterize the detailed chemical and kinematical patterns of theeventual mix of stellar populations building up the bulge. In this thesis we made use of data comingfrom the Gaia-ESO survey to conduct a detailed analysis of the disk system as well as bulge stellarpopulations. The bulge metallicity distribution function is bimodal. The metal-rich population exhibitsbar-like kinematics, displays the double RC feature and overlaps the metal-rich end of the thin disksequence in the [Mg/Fe] vs. [Fe/H] plane. We associate these stars with the bar X-shape bulge formedas the product of secular evolution of the early thin disk. On the other hand, the metal-poor populationpresents isotropic hot kinematics and does not participate in the X-shaped bulge. When compared to thethick disk, bulge stars seem to mimic their distribution in the [Mg/Fe] vs. [Fe/H] plane. Whencomparing the metallicity position of the so called ``knee'', that of the bulge is found to be at [Fe/H]=-0.37+/-0.09 dex, being 0.6 dex higher than that of the thick disk. A chemical evolution model suitablyfits the whole bulge sequence by assuming a fast (<1 Gyr) intense burst of star formation taking place atearly epochs. The origin of the metal-poor bulge still remains unconstrained, but further research shouldallow to distinguish between violent processes or secular evolution for its origin
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Starbursts at Cosmic Dawn : Formation of Globular Clusters, Ultra-Faint Dwarfs, and Population III star clusters at z > 6Nebrin, Olof January 2022 (has links)
In the standard model of cosmology (ΛCDM) the first stars, star clusters, and galaxies are expected to have formed in short bursts of star formation in low-mass dark matter halos at high redshifts (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?z%5C,%20%5Csim%20%5C,6-10" data-classname="equation_inline" />). Up to this point, attempts to predict the properties and abundances of these luminous objects have made use of numerically expensive cosmological simulations. On top of being numerically expensive, these simulations often lack the required sub-parsec resolution needed to resolve the formation of compact star clusters and/or neglect possibly dominant stellar feedback processes. Motivated by this, I introduce Anaxagoras, as far as I know the most detailed analytical ab initio model of starbursts in low-mass halos to date. The model incorporates sub-models for gas cooling (including a new determination of the H2-cooling threshold in minihalos), central gas accretion and disk formation (using a new selfsimilarsolution), stellar feedback from radiation pressure (direct stellar radiation, Lyman-<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Calpha" data-classname="equation_inline" data-title="" /> scattering in H I, and multiple scattering of IR photons by dust), stellar winds, expanding HII regions, and (crudely) supernovae. The resulting star formation efficiency is used to predict the fraction of stars that remain gravitationally bound in a cluster following gas expulsion, andwhat fraction escape the central region of the halo, yet remain bound by the dark matter halo. I apply Anaxagoras to study star formation at <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?z%5C,%20%3E%20%5C,6" data-classname="equation_inline" /> in satellite halos of the Milky Way using a halo merger tree code, as well as Population III (Pop III) star formation in minihalos. For the Milky Way setup, hundreds of galaxies are predicted to form with luminosities (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?L_%7B%5Crm%20V%7D%20%5C,%3C%5C,%20%5Crm%7Bfew%7D%5C,%20%5Ctimes%20%5C,%2010%5E4%20%5C:%20%5Crm%7BL%7D_%7B%5Codot%7D" data-classname="equation_inline" />), half-mass radii (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Csim%2010-200%5C:%5Crm%20pc" data-classname="equation_inline" />), mass-to-light ratios (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?M/L_%7B%5Crm%20V%7D%20%5Csim%20100%20-%20%5Crm%7Bfew%7D%20%5C,%5Ctimes%5C,%2010%5E3%20%5C:%5Crm%7BM%7D_%7B%5Codot%7D/%5Crm%7BL%7D_%7B%5Codot%7D" data-classname="equation" />), and ages (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?13.18%5E%7B+0.29%7D_%7B-0.31%7D%5C:%5Crm%20Gyrs" data-classname="equation_inline" data-title="" />) in good agreement with the observed local population of Ultra-Faint Dwarfs. This shows that ΛCDM is able to explain the properties ofthe faintest dwarf galaxies without fine-tuning. Furthermore, at least ~ 40 compact (initial half-mass radii <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Csim%200.1-5%5C;%5Crm%7Bpc%7D" data-classname="equation_inline" />), old (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?13.27%5E%7B+0.21%7D_%7B-0.39%7D%5C:%5Crm%20Gyrs" data-classname="equation_inline" />) globular cluster (GC) candidates with initial stellar masses <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?10%5E5%20-%2010%5E6%20%5C:%20%5Crm%7BM%7D_%7B%5Codot%7D" data-classname="equation_inline" /> are predicted to form at the center of low-mass halos, and could survive to the present-day and explain at least a fraction of the observed metal-poor GCs. Their properties are consistent with recent candidates for GCs residing in dark matter halos. Thus, Anaxagoras lends support to the viability of the scenario of GC formation in minihalos. Finally, the formation of Population III (Pop III) stars in minihalos is studied, with the conclusion that if Pop III stars are not overly massive (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?25%5C:%5Crm%7BM%7D_%7B%5Codot%7D" data-classname="equation_inline" />) between ~ 1 − 30 stars could form per minihalo at <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?z%5C,%20%3E%20%5C,20" data-classname="equation_inline" />, with the number increasing to ~ 10 − 500 stars per minihalo at <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?z%5C,%3C%5C,15" data-classname="equation_inline" /> as Lyman-Werner feedback delay star formation until halos reach larger masses. In the case where Pop III stars are more massive (<img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?140%5C:%5Crm%7BM%7D_%7B%5Codot%7D" data-classname="equation_inline" data-title="" />) most minihalos form just a single star. Due to self-shielding of H2 in minihalos, I find that the cosmological Lyman-Werner background is insufficient to produce Pop III galaxies in atomic-cooling halos, with the implication that the number of massive Pop III galaxies/star clusters in the early Universe has been greatly overestimated in the literature that ignores self-shielding.
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Formation & Evolution des galaxies par l'approche semi-analytique / Galaxy formation & evolution in the semi-analytical frameworkCousin, Morgane 24 September 2013 (has links)
Les modèles semi-analytiques (SAMs) constituent aujourd'hui le meilleur outils d'analyse et d'étude pour la formation et l'évolution des galaxies individuels mais également des regroupements de galaxies appelés amas. Alors qu'ils reproduisent avec succès les fonctions de masse stellaire, de corrélation à deux points, de luminosité des galaxies locales (z=0), ils échouent dans les prédictions des propriétés des galaxies plus jeunes, à plus haut décalage vers le rouge. Et ce d'autant plus que la masse stellaire est faible. Ces inconsistances entre les modèles et les observations démontrent que l'histoire de l'assemblage des ces galaxies, en relation avec l'accrétion de gaz, la formation stellaire et leurs halos de matière noire n'est pas bien comprise. Dans cette thèse, nous introduisons une nouvelle version du modèle semi-analytique GalICS et nous l'utilisons pour explorer l'impact, sur la formation stellaire des galaxies à faible masse, de la rétroaction des supernovae et des trous noirs supermassifs ainsi que des processus de photo-ionisation. Ces deux mécanismes sont communément utilisés pour réduire la formation de nouvelles étoiles dans les galaxies peu massives. Nous montrons que, même appliqué avec de très fortes efficacités, ces deux processus ne peuvent pas expliquer simultanément les fonctions de masse, de luminosité et la relation entre masse stellaire et masse des halos de matière noire pour les galaxies évoluant à grand décalage spectral. Suite à ce constat, nous introduisons deux recettes ad-hoc pour la formation stellaire. Dans un premier temps nous appliquons une forte modification de l'efficacité de formation stellaire en relation directe avec la masse de matière noire de leur halo hôte. Cette première approche conduit à de bons résultats, en particulier dans le régime des faibles masses stellaires mais il présente, par construction un profond désaccord avec la loi de formation stellaire observées par Kennicutt. Pour cela, nous introduisons une seconde modification, plus profonde, basée sur l'existence d'une composante de gaz, évoluant en périphérie des premiers disques galactiques, mais ne pouvant pas, pour des raisons encore mal comprises, former de nouvelles générations d'étoiles. Progressivement, ce gaz impropre à la formation stellaire est convertit, il alimente alors la formation d'étoile. L'introduction de ce nouveau réservoir, introduit un délai entre le moment ou le gaz s'effondre au centre du halo et le moment ou ce gaz. Ce nouveau modèle donne de très bons résultats mais il pose la question de l'origine de ce gaz impropre à la formation stellaire. Nous abordons dans cette thèse quelques piste de recherche dans le cadre de la formation des grandes structures peuplant notre Univers. / Semi-analytical models (SAMs) are currently the best way to understand the formation of galaxies and clusters within the cosmic web dark-matter structures. While they fairly well reproduce the local stellar mass function, correlation function and luminosity function, they fail to match observations at high redshift (z>3) in most cases, particularly in the low-mass range. The inconsistency between models and observations indicates that the history of gas accretion in galaxies, within their host dark-matter halo, and the transformation of gas into stars, is not well followed. In this thesis, we introduce a new version of the GalICS model and we use it to explore the impact, on the star formation and in the low-mass range, of supernovae feedback and photo-ionization. These two mechanisms are commonly used to limit the amount of gas available to form stars.We will show that, even with a strong efficiency, these two process cannot explain the observed stellar mass function, luminosity functions, and the stellar mass versus dark matter halo mass relation. We will thus introduce two ad-hoc modifications of the standard paradigm. We propose first a strong modification of the star formation efficiency as a function of the dark matter halo mass. This model produces good results, especially on the faint end of the stellar mass function, but is, by construction, in disagreement with the well known Kennicutt star formation law. We will thus introduce a deeper change, based on a no star-forming gas component, and a new gas distribution in the galaxy discs. The reservoir in which stays the no star-forming gas generates a delay between the gas accretion and star formation. This model is in very good agreement with a large set of observations. However, it poses the question of the origin of the no star-forming gas. We will discuss its origin in the framework of the large scale disturbed dynamic of high-redshift structures.
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Pre-Supernova Stellar Feedback: from the Milky Way to ReionizationOlivier, Grace Margaret 30 September 2022 (has links)
No description available.
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Physical Properties of Massive, Star-Forming Galaxies When the Universe Was Only Two Billion Years OldFu, Nicole Christina 04 May 2011 (has links)
Due to the finite speed of light and a vast, expanding universe, telescopes are just now receiving the light emitted by galaxies as they were forming in the very early universe. The light from these galaxies has been redshifted (stretched to longer, redder wavelengths) as a result of its journey through expanding space. Using sophisticated techniques and exceptional multi-wavelength optical and infrared data, we isolate a population of 378 galaxies in the process of formation when the Universe was only two billion years old. By matching the distinctive properties of the light spectra of these galaxies to models, the redshift, age, dust content, star formation rate and total stellar mass of each galaxy are determined. Comparing our results to similar surveys of galaxy populations at other redshifts, a picture emerges of the growth and evolution of massive, star-forming galaxies over the course of billions of years.
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Physical Properties of Massive, Star-Forming Galaxies When the Universe Was Only Two Billion Years OldFu, Nicole Christina 04 May 2011 (has links)
Due to the finite speed of light and a vast, expanding universe, telescopes are just now receiving the light emitted by galaxies as they were forming in the very early universe. The light from these galaxies has been redshifted (stretched to longer, redder wavelengths) as a result of its journey through expanding space. Using sophisticated techniques and exceptional multi-wavelength optical and infrared data, we isolate a population of 378 galaxies in the process of formation when the Universe was only two billion years old. By matching the distinctive properties of the light spectra of these galaxies to models, the redshift, age, dust content, star formation rate and total stellar mass of each galaxy are determined. Comparing our results to similar surveys of galaxy populations at other redshifts, a picture emerges of the growth and evolution of massive, star-forming galaxies over the course of billions of years.
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Physical Properties of Massive, Star-Forming Galaxies When the Universe Was Only Two Billion Years OldFu, Nicole Christina 04 May 2011 (has links)
Due to the finite speed of light and a vast, expanding universe, telescopes are just now receiving the light emitted by galaxies as they were forming in the very early universe. The light from these galaxies has been redshifted (stretched to longer, redder wavelengths) as a result of its journey through expanding space. Using sophisticated techniques and exceptional multi-wavelength optical and infrared data, we isolate a population of 378 galaxies in the process of formation when the Universe was only two billion years old. By matching the distinctive properties of the light spectra of these galaxies to models, the redshift, age, dust content, star formation rate and total stellar mass of each galaxy are determined. Comparing our results to similar surveys of galaxy populations at other redshifts, a picture emerges of the growth and evolution of massive, star-forming galaxies over the course of billions of years.
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Physical Properties of Massive, Star-Forming Galaxies When the Universe Was Only Two Billion Years OldFu, Nicole Christina January 2011 (has links)
Due to the finite speed of light and a vast, expanding universe, telescopes are just now receiving the light emitted by galaxies as they were forming in the very early universe. The light from these galaxies has been redshifted (stretched to longer, redder wavelengths) as a result of its journey through expanding space. Using sophisticated techniques and exceptional multi-wavelength optical and infrared data, we isolate a population of 378 galaxies in the process of formation when the Universe was only two billion years old. By matching the distinctive properties of the light spectra of these galaxies to models, the redshift, age, dust content, star formation rate and total stellar mass of each galaxy are determined. Comparing our results to similar surveys of galaxy populations at other redshifts, a picture emerges of the growth and evolution of massive, star-forming galaxies over the course of billions of years.
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