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O presente trabalho teve como objetivo a padronização em atividade do radionuclídeo 177Lu, um importante radiofármaco utilizado no tratamento de câncer neuroendócrino. Este radionuclídeo se desintegra por emissão beta acompanhada de várias emissões gama simultâneas, o que tornou possível a aplicação do método de coincidência 4πβ-γ. Para a detecção da radiação beta, foi utilizado um detector proporcional (PC), com geometria 4π e dois cintiladores de NaI(Tl) para a detecção da radiação gama. Os sinais gerados nos detectores passaram por amplificadores, discriminadores e módulos atrasadores, para serem enviados a um analisador multicanal. Para este experimento, foi utilizado um sistema de coincidências que aplica um módulo TAC (Time to Amplitude Converter), o qual converte diferença de tempo em amplitude de pulso. Para obter-se a variação na eficiência beta, foram acrescentados absorvedores de Collodion nas partes superior e inferior da fonte radioativa. Desta forma, foi possível extrapolar o valor para eficiência beta igual a 100%, obtendo assim a atividade da fonte radioativa. A curva de extrapolação experimental foi comparada com a previsão teórica, obtida por meio do método de Monte Carlo. Além da padronização em atividade do 177Lu, também foram determinadas as suas probabilidades de emissão gama por decaimento para cada uma das principais transições gama, por meio de um espectrômetro de HPGe, previamente calibrado. / The present work aimed the activity standardization of radionuclide 177Lu, an important radioisotope used for treatment of neuroendocrine cancer. This radionuclide disintegrates by beta decay followed by several simultaneous gamma-ray emissions, which made possible the application of the 4πβ-γ coincidence method. For the detection of beta radiation in 4π geometry a proportional detector (PC) was used, and for gamma radiation detection a pair of NaI(Tl) scintillators was used. The signals generated by the detectors passed through amplifiers, discriminators and delay modules, and were sent to a multichannel analyzer. For the present experiment, the system includes a TAC (Time to Amplitude Converter) module which converts the time difference in pulse amplitude. To obtain the variation in beta efficiency, Collodion absorbers at the top and bottom of the radioactive source were applied. In this way, it was possible to extrapolate the beta efficiency value to 100%, thereby obtaining the radioactive source activity. The extrapolated experimental curve was compared with the theoretical prediction, obtained by means of the Monte Carlo method. Besides the activity standardization of 177Lu, its gamma-ray emission probabilities per decay for the main gamma transitions were also determined by means of an HPGe spectrometer, previously calibrated.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo a padronização em atividade do radionuclídeo 177Lu, um importante radiofármaco utilizado no tratamento de câncer neuroendócrino. Este radionuclídeo se desintegra por emissão beta acompanhada de várias emissões gama simultâneas, o que tornou possível a aplicação do método de coincidência 4πβ-γ. Para a detecção da radiação beta, foi utilizado um detector proporcional (PC), com geometria 4π e dois cintiladores de NaI(Tl) para a detecção da radiação gama. Os sinais gerados nos detectores passaram por amplificadores, discriminadores e módulos atrasadores, para serem enviados a um analisador multicanal. Para este experimento, foi utilizado um sistema de coincidências que aplica um módulo TAC (Time to Amplitude Converter), o qual converte diferença de tempo em amplitude de pulso. Para obter-se a variação na eficiência beta, foram acrescentados absorvedores de Collodion nas partes superior e inferior da fonte radioativa. Desta forma, foi possível extrapolar o valor para eficiência beta igual a 100%, obtendo assim a atividade da fonte radioativa. A curva de extrapolação experimental foi comparada com a previsão teórica, obtida por meio do método de Monte Carlo. Além da padronização em atividade do 177Lu, também foram determinadas as suas probabilidades de emissão gama por decaimento para cada uma das principais transições gama, por meio de um espectrômetro de HPGe, previamente calibrado. / The present work aimed the activity standardization of radionuclide 177Lu, an important radioisotope used for treatment of neuroendocrine cancer. This radionuclide disintegrates by beta decay followed by several simultaneous gamma-ray emissions, which made possible the application of the 4πβ-γ coincidence method. For the detection of beta radiation in 4π geometry a proportional detector (PC) was used, and for gamma radiation detection a pair of NaI(Tl) scintillators was used. The signals generated by the detectors passed through amplifiers, discriminators and delay modules, and were sent to a multichannel analyzer. For the present experiment, the system includes a TAC (Time to Amplitude Converter) module which converts the time difference in pulse amplitude. To obtain the variation in beta efficiency, Collodion absorbers at the top and bottom of the radioactive source were applied. In this way, it was possible to extrapolate the beta efficiency value to 100%, thereby obtaining the radioactive source activity. The extrapolated experimental curve was compared with the theoretical prediction, obtained by means of the Monte Carlo method. Besides the activity standardization of 177Lu, its gamma-ray emission probabilities per decay for the main gamma transitions were also determined by means of an HPGe spectrometer, previously calibrated.

This thesis treats the findings and current theories of the active galactic nuclei 3454.3. It mainly aims to describe the behavior of the specific source in the gamma-ray energy band as recorded by the Fermi-LAT satellite. Using NASA’s computational tools and all recorded data the variability of the source was assessed. As the received flux from the source varies substantially over time several periods of time for which the flux differs considerably were analysed. Spectral analysis for the various time-frames was performed in order to determine how we best can describe the results from each period. The Fermi-LAT results were then examined in the wider context of multi-wavelength astronomy. Finally, data retrieved at all wavelengths were modeled and compared in accordance with currently held theories.

The nature of high-energy gamma-ray emission from Star-Forming Galaxies is of utmost importance for understanding both the origin of Cosmic Rays and the high-energy processes that shape galaxy formation. Observations from the gamma-ray telescope Fermi-LAT have detected gamma-ray emission from a handful of nearby Star-Forming Galaxies. Interestingly, observations of the Small Magellanic Cloud show evidence for a spectral cutoff at energies of approximately 10 GeV. This has raised the question as to whether some Star-Forming Galaxies are unable to contain their Cosmic Ray population. Using the Fermitools to analyse the gamma-ray emission from a selection of bright nearby Star-Forming Galaxies, this study intends to explore the possibility of finding further evidence for exponential cutoffs in the gamma-ray spectrum of Star-Forming Galaxies. The shape of the combined spectrum of the 49 galaxies in the sample was determined using least-square fitting of a single power law, a broken power law and a power law with an exponential cutoff. No evidence of an exponentialcutoff was found and the shape of the spectrum was best described by a broken power law with indices Γ1 = -2.48 ± 0.05 and Γ2 = -0.88 ± 0.09. This is in poor agreement with previous observations, which favour a simple power law with an index in the range -2.2 to -2.4. Interestingly, the single power law, while disfavoured over the broken power law at ~7σ, was best fit with the index Γ = -2.35 ± 0.06, which is surprisingly well in agreement with previous observations. The discrepancy between the results presented here and those found in the literature is interpreted as due to insufficient treatment of background fluctuations and the possible existence of bright sources at the unverified blank sky locations used for modelling the background.

Die Protonentherapie, welche zur Behandlung von Tumoren mittlerweile weltweit eingesetzt wird, könnte von einem System zur Reichweitekontrolle des Protonenstrahls bedeutend profitieren. Einen Rückschluss auf die Position der Protonen in Echtzeit ermöglicht die prompte Gammastrahlung. Diese Sekundärstrahlung entsteht durch nukleare Wechselwirkungen der Protonen mit den Atomkernen im Gewebe. Derzeit existieren verschiedene Methoden die aus einer Messung der zeitlichen oder räumlichen Verteilung dieser hochenergetischen Photonen versuchen eine Reichweiteinformation zu gewinnen. Die Methoden zur Nutzung prompter Gammastrahlung beruhen auf den verlässlichen Voraussagen von Teilchentransportrechnungen. Im Vergleich zu Messungen zeigen diese jedoch Diskrepanzen in den Photonenproduktionsquerschnitten aufgrund mangelnder experimenteller Stützstellen. Um einen Beitrag zu der Datenlage zu leisten, soll das Emissionsspektrum prompter Gammastrahlung am Kohlenstoff bestimmt werden. Dazu werden mithilfe von Entfaltungsalgorithmen aus den aufbereiteten Messdaten und der simulierten Detektorantwort vorhandene Energielinien und deren Intensität extrahiert. Über eine Normierung auf die Anzahl einfallender Protonen erfolgt die Bestimmung von Ausbeuten prompter Gammastrahlung bei der Bestrahlung homogener Kohlenstofftargets mit Protonen.:1 Einleitung und Motivation 2 Grundlagen der Entfaltung von Gammaspektren 2.1 Inverses Problem 2.1.1 Gold-Dekonvolution 2.1.2 Spektrum-Stripping 3 Experimentelle Bestimmung des prompten Gammaspektrums 3.1 Vorbetrachtungen und Aufbau des Experimentes 3.2 Verarbeitung der Messdaten 3.3 Optimierung des Messaufbaus und Maßnahmen der Untergrundreduktion 3.3.1 Abschirmung der Detektoren und Untergrundkorrektur 3.3.2 Flugzeitdiskriminierung 4 Entfaltung der gewonnenen Gammaspektren 4.1 Bestimmung der Detektorantwort mit GEANT 4 4.1.1 Bestimmung der detektorspezifischen Energieauflösung und des Ansprechvermögens über Quellmessungen 4.2 Entfaltung 4.2.1 Ergebnisse der Gold-Dekonvolution 4.2.2 Ergebnisse des Spektrum-Stripping 4.3 Protonenfluenznormierung 5 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Anhang A Depositionsspektren der Detektoren 2 (125°) und 3 (55°) 69 Literaturverzeichnis Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Abkürzungsverzeichnis Danksagung Selbstständigkeitserklärung / Proton therapy, which has become a clinically established technology for cancer treatment worldwide, would greatly benefit from an appropriate range verification system. A signature, which can be used to trace the range of the primary protons in real time during the treatment, is the so-called prompt gamma radiation. It is produced in nuclear reactions of the protons with the nuclei in tissue. Currently, there are different approaches which try to decode a range information from the spatial or time distribution of these high energetic photons. Methods utilizing prompt gamma-rays rely on the prediction of particle transport simulations. In comparison to measurements these simulations show severe deviations in prompt gamma-ray yield due to insufficient availability of experimental data. To make a contribution to the data situation, the prompt gamma-ray emission spectra for carbon should be investigated. Therefore deconvolution algorithms are applied to measured spectra with knowledge of the detector response function. Unfolded energy lines and their intensities are examined. With help of proton fluence some yields for the irradiation of homogeneous graphite targets are determined.:1 Einleitung und Motivation 2 Grundlagen der Entfaltung von Gammaspektren 2.1 Inverses Problem 2.1.1 Gold-Dekonvolution 2.1.2 Spektrum-Stripping 3 Experimentelle Bestimmung des prompten Gammaspektrums 3.1 Vorbetrachtungen und Aufbau des Experimentes 3.2 Verarbeitung der Messdaten 3.3 Optimierung des Messaufbaus und Maßnahmen der Untergrundreduktion 3.3.1 Abschirmung der Detektoren und Untergrundkorrektur 3.3.2 Flugzeitdiskriminierung 4 Entfaltung der gewonnenen Gammaspektren 4.1 Bestimmung der Detektorantwort mit GEANT 4 4.1.1 Bestimmung der detektorspezifischen Energieauflösung und des Ansprechvermögens über Quellmessungen 4.2 Entfaltung 4.2.1 Ergebnisse der Gold-Dekonvolution 4.2.2 Ergebnisse des Spektrum-Stripping 4.3 Protonenfluenznormierung 5 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Anhang A Depositionsspektren der Detektoren 2 (125°) und 3 (55°) 69 Literaturverzeichnis Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Abkürzungsverzeichnis Danksagung Selbstständigkeitserklärung