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In this study, attitudes towards female employment and the division of labour between men and women in Germany, Italy and Sweden are explored. Using a quantitative approach, the first objective is to examine how political ideologies and welfare political models are reflected in or accompany attitudes towards female labour market participation among different groups in the three welfare states. Welfare policies significantly influence women’s choices to enter and remain in employment and to achieve individual social rights. Based on a more qualitative approach, the second aim is to study policy dynamics in relation to changing value orientations, and to track the emergence of alternative policies and their intended target groups. For this purpose local political implementers in each country were interviewed. The overall conclusion is that that the ways in which certain patterns of gender relations occur are closely related to the designs of national welfare policies. Still, within the groups of women and men factors such as age, educational attainment levels and family status are important or even decisive for attitudes towards female labour market participation. In addition, the extent to which attitudes correspond to actual female labour market behaviour seems largely to be a matter of public policy. While all three studies point at important national differences in welfare policies at the same time as patterns of value orientations converge, especially among women, the comparison of local policy levels reveals important withincountry variations. These variations concern the quantity as well as the quality of policy measures, that is, the political implications for gender on socio-economic situation, alternative political majority and historical and cultural heritage. Variations in local policy formulations are large in Italy and less pronounced in Germany and Sweden, and they illustrate the different political emphasis placed on the preservation, modification or transformation of what is defined as gender equality and as local or national cultural traditions. Local social and labour market policies depict quite different approaches. The degree of state control versus local autonomy is relevant for the outcome of local social policies on gender and both national and local policy formulations are important in determining whether the normative emphasis should be placed on the maintenance, reinforcement or alteration of gender relations. While such choices and decisions also include the acceptance or rejection of national, and even local differences in definitions of citizenship rights, they point at the inherent relativity of the concept and as a result, its gendering effects on social, economic and political equality.

<p>In this study, attitudes towards female employment and the division of labour between men and women in Germany, Italy and Sweden are explored. Using a quantitative approach, the first objective is to examine how political ideologies and welfare political models are reflected in or accompany attitudes towards female labour market participation among different groups in the three welfare states. Welfare policies significantly influence women’s choices to enter and remain in employment and to achieve individual social rights. Based on a more qualitative approach, the second aim is to study policy dynamics in relation to changing value orientations, and to track the emergence of alternative policies and their intended target groups. For this purpose local political implementers in each country were interviewed.</p><p>The overall conclusion is that that the ways in which certain patterns of gender relations occur are closely related to the designs of national welfare policies. Still, within the groups of women and men factors such as age, educational attainment levels and family status are important or even decisive for attitudes towards female labour market participation. In addition, the extent to which attitudes correspond to actual female labour market behaviour seems largely to be a matter of public policy. While all three studies point at important national differences in welfare policies at the same time as patterns of value orientations converge, especially among women, the comparison of local policy levels reveals important withincountry variations. These variations concern the quantity as well as the quality of policy measures, that is, the political implications for gender on socio-economic situation, alternative political majority and historical and cultural heritage. Variations in local policy formulations are large in Italy and less pronounced in Germany and Sweden, and they illustrate the different political emphasis placed on the preservation, modification or transformation of what is defined as gender equality and as local or national cultural traditions. Local social and labour market policies depict quite different approaches. The degree of state control versus local autonomy is relevant for the outcome of local social policies on gender and both national and local policy formulations are important in determining whether the normative emphasis should be placed on the maintenance, reinforcement or alteration of gender relations. While such choices and decisions also include the acceptance or rejection of national, and even local differences in definitions of citizenship rights, they point at the inherent relativity of the concept and as a result, its gendering effects on social, economic and political equality. </p>

Gendered practices of working life create gender inequalities through horizontal and vertical gender segregation in work, which may lead to gender inequalities in health experiences. The workplace is an important part of the social circumstances under which health opportunities and constraints are shaped. The workplace has also been identified as an important arena for gender constructions. Still, there is a lack of research about the relations between workplace gender equality and health experiences. The aim of this thesis was to explore gender equality and health experiences in a workplace setting. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used. In the qualitative studies all caregiving staff at two establishments providing care for elderly was invited to participate in focus groups (Papers I &amp; II). A moderator led 14 focusgroup discussions. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the transcribed discussions. For the quantitative studies questionnaire data from the Northern Swedish Cohort (n=836) were analysed and supplemented with register data about the participants’ workplaces. The register data were used to stratify the workplaces according to gender composition (paper IV) and to create gender equality indicators of the number of women and men at the workplace, education, salary and parental leave (Paper III). Cluster analysis was used to identify patterns of gender equality at the workplaces. Logistic regression analysis, adjusting for individual socio-demographics and previous psychological distress, were used to analyse psychological distress in relation to both clusters and gender compositions. This thesis identifies various workplace patterns of gender equality and how they are related to health experiences. The results from the focus group study showed that workplace stressors had a structural character, often originating from societal processes outside the own organization, whereas health resources had a relational character and were constructed within the organization (paper I). Gender equality was seen as a structural issue not connected to the individual health experiences and gender inequalities were justified through focusing on personalities and interests in work division (paper II). The cluster analysis resulted in six distinctive clusters with different workplace patterns of gender equality (paper III). The most gender-equal cluster was characterized by gender equality in salary and parental leave and was associated with the lowest prevalence of psychological distress, with no significant differences between women and men. The clusters were associated with psychological distress among women only. The highest odds for psychological distress among women were found in a traditional unequal cluster. Analyses of the gender composition at the workplace showed that the highest prevalence of psychological distress was found at workplaces with a mixed gender composition (paper IV). The psychosocial work environment was rather similar independent of the workplace gender composition.The factors most strongly associated with psychological distress were high demands and low control at workplaces with more men, being looked down upon at workplaces with a mixed gender composition, and social support at workplaces with more women. Gender perspectives highlight the importance of gender relations in research on work-related health. Gender inequalities at workplaces can be part of the explanation to women’s worse self-rated health. A multidimensional view of gender equality is necessary to understand health consequences of specific workplace situations. Workplaces are important arenas for health promotion activities and gender equality aspects needs to be taken into account to reach both women and men. Adequate health promotion needs to shift focus from individual health strategies to structural solutions that can challenge the root of the problem. / Ojämställdhet i arbetslivet kan innebära olika hälsokonsekvenser för kvinnor och män. Arbetsplatsen är en viktig del av de sociala omständigheter under vilka hälsomöjligheter och -begränsningar skapas. Arbetsplatsen har också identifierats som en viktig arena för genuskonstruktioner. Trots detta saknas forskning om relationerna mellan jämställdhet på arbetsplatser och hälsoupplevelser. Den här avhandlingen syftar till att studera sambanden mellan jämställdhet på arbetsplatser och de anställdas hälsoupplevelser. Avhandlingen använder både kvalitativa och kvantitativa metoder. I de kvalitativa studierna erbjöds all vårdpersonal på två äldreboenden att delta i fokusgruppsdiskussioner (Artikel I &amp; II). Sammanlagt genomfördes 14 fokusgrupper. Kvalitativ innehållsanalys användes för att analysera de transkriberade fokusgrupperna. I de kvantitativa studierna användes enkätdata från Luleåkohorten(n= 836) som kompletterats med registerdata om deltagarnas arbetsplatser. Registerdata användes för att stratifiera deltagarna utifrån könssammansättningen på deras arbetsplatser (artikel IV) och för att skapa jämställdhetsindikatorer för arbetsplatserna vad gäller andel män och kvinnor, utbildningsnivå, lön och föräldraledighet (artikel III). Klusteranalys användes för att identifiera mönster av jämställhet på arbetsplatserna. Skillnader i psykiska besvär mellan klustren respektive de olika könssammansättningarna analyserades med logistisk regressionsanalys som justerats för sociodemografiska variabler och tidigare psykiska besvär. Avhandlingen identifierar olika jämställdhetsmönster på arbetsplatsenoch hur de är relaterade till hälsoupplevelser. Resultaten från fokusgruppstudierna visade att de hälsorelaterade stressorerna hade en strukturell karaktär som ofta hade sitt ursprung i sociala processer utanför den egna organisationen. Hälsoresurserna var i hög utsträckning av relationell karaktär och skapades inom organisationen. Ojämställdhet sågs som ett strukturellt problem som inte kopplades till individuell hälsa. Ojämställdhet i arbetsfördelningen försvarades genom att fokusera på personligheter och individuella intressen. Kvantitativa analyser resulterade i sex kluster med olika jämställdhetsmönster på arbetsplatserna. Det mest jämställda klustret kännetecknades av arbetsplatser med jämställda löner och föräldraledighet och var relaterat till den lägsta förekomsten av psykiska besvär. I detta kluster hade också män och kvinnor samma förekomst av psykiska besvär. Bland kvinnorna fanns det skillnader mellan klusterna vad gäller psykiska besvär, men inte bland männen. Den högsta förekomsten av psykiska besvär bland kvinnor fanns i det traditionellt mest ojämställda klustret (artikel III) samt på arbetsplatser med en blandad könssammansättning (artikel IV). Variationen i den psykosociala arbetsmiljön var liten mellan arbetsplatser med olika könssammansättning men det fanns skillnader i sambanden mellan den psykosociala arbetsmiljön och psykiska besvär. De faktorer som hade starkast samband med psykiska besvär var höga krav och låg kontroll på arbetsplatser med en majoritet män, att bli ”sedd ner på” på könsblandade arbetsplatser, och socialt stöd på arbetsplatser med en majoritet kvinnor. Genusperspektiv är viktiga för att lyfta fram betydelsen av genusrelationer i forskning om arbetsrelaterad hälsa. Ojämställdhet på arbetsplatser kan vara en del av förklaringen till kvinnors sämre självskattade hälsa. En mångdimensionell syn på jämställdhet är nödvändig för att förstå hälsokonsekvenser av specifika arbetsplatssituationer. Arbetsplatser utgör också viktiga arenor för hälsofrämjande åtgärder och jämställdhetsaspekter måste beaktas för att dessa åtgärder ska nå både kvinnor och män på arbetsplatserna. Hälsofrämjande arbete måste skifta fokus från individuella, beteendeinriktade hälsostrategier till strukturella lösningar som kan utmana grunden till problemen.

Leaders and policy makers in Uganda developed a national strategy of placing female administrators in traditionally male-dominated coeducational secondary schools in the belief that their vision would promote equitable education by changing gender regimes that play in schools. Gender regimes are patterns of gender arrangements that could disadvantage the education of boys or girls (Connell, 2002). The purpose of this study was to discover if female administrators perceived and had developed strategies to change gender regimes in their schools. Participants were 13 female administrators of government-supported coeducational mixed/day secondary schools in Kampala and Wakiso urban districts. Participants ranged in age from 37 to 59 years and in school experience from 12 to 32 years. Nine participants held masters' degrees and 4 were currently enrolled in masters' programs. All participants were members of a female organization. The investigator used qualitative methodology to collect and analyze data and to report findings. With each participant, the investigator engaged in an open dialogue and used a semi-structured protocol to conduct an interview that was recorded and transcribed. The investigator examined archival records and collected artifacts from each school. Data were analyzed emically with NVivo software to facilitate the iterative process of identifying and refining themes. Themes had to reach a threshold of 50% to be considered significant. The findings revealed that female administrators perceived gender regimes related to family culture, school culture, sexuality, and power and authority. All female administrators had developed strategies to change the gender regimes that disadvantaged girls' education. These perceptions and strategies indicated that gender regimes were part of the vision of female administrators, but insufficient evidence was collected to determine the degree they were part of their strategic goals. These findings are significant because if these female administrators can change the gender regimes at play in their schools, they will make a significant contribution to providing equitable education to their students. While these findings cannot be generalized, this work may help other educators gain a better understanding of the influence of gender regimes in their schools.

This thesis examines how Afghan women from the professional social class have negotiated the patriarchy in that country and claimed their agency and public life during different political regimes. Resisting the Western representation of Afghan women as passive victims, it uses the life story method, based on interviews with a wide range of women in public life during the period of US-sponsored democracy and intervention, to analyse the complex factors involved in enabling women to access public life. From a historical sociological viewpoint it examines the shifts in the forms of patriarchy and their sustaining gender regimes from 19th century to the present, and draws on Walby’s six structures of patriarchy in order to understand how those shift affected the ability of women to access public life and employment. Those structures – culture, religion, education, employment, family – are explored through the experiences and life histories of my interviewees. The thesis also pays attention to the involvement of external, foreign actors in the affairs of Afghanistan and the impact of those interventions on the possibility for women’s agency and participation in professional and public life through different political regimes. It thus challenges a simplistic view 9/11 was a water-shed moment for women’s empowerment, and notes that the economic is-sues, an aid-dependent economy and political regimes, security and safety, poverty and psychological trauma, corruption and power struggles among different forces (local and foreign) in many ways undermined women’s prospects in public life. The finding of the research shows that the rights and position of women in Afghanistan have fluctuated over the last 100 years depending on the patriarchal cultural, political and religious ideology and practice of the political regimes, and in no small part due to the influence and interference of external actors in the country.

ABSTRACT  Aims:  While the relationship between unemployment and well-being is widely acknowledged, there has been little exploration of its consequences for older workers. It is also less clear whether this relationship differs between welfare states characterized by varying levels of social protection for the unemployed. Thus, the aim is to examine the relationship between unemployment and well- being, considering factors such as age and gender across diverse contexts.  Methods:  Data is utilized from the European Social Survey (ESS), round 9 conducted in 2018, encompassing 25 countries classified into five welfare state regimes (Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, Bismarckian, Southern and Eastern), with 44 577 respondents, aged 16-90. Well-being is measured using the variable "Happy" on a 10-point scale. The analysis includes individual-level factors (employment status, age, gender) and macro-level factors (welfare state regimes). Employment status was main activity in the last 7 days. Linear regression models are employed, with a focus on both the entire population and the unemployed within each welfare regime. The analysis initially compares well-being between the employed and unemployed, followed by a focused analysis on older (55 years or older) unemployed.  Results:  Unemployed individuals in all countries reported lower well-being than those employed. Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon and Bismarckian regimes exhibit a significant negative impact of unemployment on well-being, while Southern and Eastern European states demonstrate more modest impacts. Older unemployed individuals generally indicate higher well-being across all regimes compared to young and middle-age unemployed, although the results lack statistical significance. Gender-based disparities in well-being within the Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, and Bismarckian regimes also lack statistical significance, implying an equivalent negative impact of unemployment on both men and women. In contrast, Eastern and Southern regimes exhibit a significant distinction, with higher well-being among unemployed women compared to men. Conclusion:  The negative relationship between unemployment and well-being is consistent across Europe but varies by welfare state regime. Simultaneously, older unemployed individuals report higher well- being, suggesting that younger and middle-aged unemployed individuals may face more significant challenges in navigating the association between unemployment and well-being. This difference may be attributed to the presence of social protection mechanisms within welfare regimes, exerting a positive influence on the well-being of the older demographic, and variations in work culture, such as an earlier retirement age in some countries and lower work norms in others. The non-existent gender differences in the association between unemployment and well- being in the Scandinavian, Bismarckian, and Anglo-Saxon regimes suggest a shared work norm where women should experience similar psychosocial and economic pressures as men when unemployed. Yet, in Eastern and Southern regimes, women exhibit significantly higher well-being than men, which indicate that traditional standard of the man as the main breadwinner is still pervasive in Eastern and Southern regimes. These findings emphasize the influence of contextual factors on the relationship between unemployment and well-being. / SAMMANFATTNING  Syfte:  Även om sambandet mellan arbetslöshet och välbefinnande är allmänt erkänt, har det gjorts lite forskning kring dess konsekvenser för äldre arbetstagare. Det är också mindre tydligt om detta förhållande varierar mellan välfärdsstater som kännetecknas av olika nivåer av socialt skydd för arbetslösa. Således är syftet att undersöka förhållandet mellan arbetslöshet och välbefinnande, med hänsyn till faktorer som ålder och kön i olika sammanhang.  Metod:  Data används från European Social Survey (ESS), omgång 9 genomförd 2018, omfattande 25 länder indelade i fem välfärdstatsregimer (Skandinavisk, Anglo-Saxisk, Bismarckiansk, Södra och Östra Europa), med 44 577 respondenter i åldrarna 16–90. Välbefinnande mäts med variabeln "Lycka" på en 10-gradig skala. Analysen inkluderar individuella faktorer (sysselsättningsstatus, ålder, kön) och makrofaktorer (välfärdsstatsregimer). Sysselsättningsstatus var huvudaktivitet de senaste 7 dagarna. Linjära regressionsmodeller används, med fokus på både hela populationen och de arbetslösa inom varje välfärdsregim. Inledningsvis jämförs välbefinnandet mellan de sysselsatta och arbetslösa, följt av en detaljerad analys av äldre (55 år och äldre) arbetslösa. Resultat:  Arbetslösa i alla länder rapporterade lägre välbefinnande jämfört med de sysselsatta. Skandinaviska, Anglo-Saxiska och Bismarckianska regimerna uppvisar en signifikant negativ påverkan av arbetslöshet på välbefinnandet, medan länderna i Södra och Östra Europa visar mer måttliga effekter. Äldre arbetslösa indikerar generellt sett högre välbefinnande i alla regimer jämfört med unga och medelålders arbetslösa, även om resultaten saknar statistisk signifikans. Könsskillnader i välbefinnande inom Skandinaviska, Anglo-Saxiska och Bismarckianska regimerna saknar också statistisk signifikans, vilket antyder en likvärdig negativ påverkan av arbetslöshet på både män och kvinnor. Å andra sidan uppvisar Södra och Östra regimerna en signifikant skillnad, med högre välbefinnande bland arbetslösa kvinnor jämfört med män. Slutsats:  Det negativa förhållandet mellan arbetslöshet och välbefinnande är konsekvent över hela Europa men varierar mellan välfärdsregimer. Samtidigt rapporterar äldre arbetslösa personer högre välbefinnande, vilket antyder att yngre och medelålders arbetslösa personer kan stå inför större utmaningar när det gäller att hantera konsekvenserna av arbetslöshet. Denna skillnad kan bero på närvaron av socialt skyddsnät inom välfärdsregimerna, vilket har en positiv inverkan på välbefinnandet hos de äldre, samt variationer i arbetskultur, såsom en tidigare pensionsålder i vissa länder och lägre arbetsnorm i andra. De icke existerande könsskillnaderna i förhållandet mellan arbetslöshet och välbefinnande i Skandinaviska, Bismarckianska och Anglo-Saxiska regimerna antyder en gemensam arbetsnorm där kvinnor bör uppleva liknande psykosociala och ekonomiska påfrestningar som män när de är arbetslösa. I motsats till detta uppvisar kvinnor i Östliga och Sydliga regimerna signifikant högre välbefinnande än män, vilket indikerar att den traditionella normen där mannen är huvudförsörjaren fortfarande är utbredd i Östa och Södra regimerna. Dessa resultat betonar betydelsen av kontextuella faktorer för förhållandet mellan arbetslöshet och välbefinnande.