In this study, two diverse scientific areas of research, namely, biological-chemical and public administration, were drawn upon to find an answer for improved risk governance of genetically modified organisms (GMO/GM) and pesticides. The need for such a study appeared from the constraints experienced with regulatory approval of GMO crops in South Africa. The knowledge gained from research on risk governance of GMOs could also be applied to pesticides. Protracted procedures causing delays in approval and increasingly stringent regulatory requirements of GMOs resulted in negative implications for research, development and commercialisation. Approval of several South African co-developed GMOs has been delayed or rejected that resulted in withdrawal or reducing of research activities, apart from appeals against decisions. The objective of the study was to identify some of the reasons for delays as experienced in risk assessments and to propose remedial actions, including the critical interface between role players in risk governance. The approach taken in this research was to obtain, by means of a questionnaire, a broad view of risk governances of GMOs as measured with criteria of good governance experienced by scientists of biotechnology and related disciplines. This was followed by another questionnaire with focus on one specific area that caused delays for GMO permit applicants. The investigation included analysis of South African legislation, guidelines and interviews. The research on risk assessment narrowed down to the two areas, illustrated by South African applicable case studies, namely, food risk/safety assessment of GMO cassava and environmental risk assessment of GMO sorghum. Approaches to improve assessments are being recommended. Uncertainty in risk assessment is an important reality because of humankind‘s limited knowledge of nature. Uncertainty is further addressed by precautious management, described as the precautionary principle is a norm legislated by the South African government in line with international agreements (the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety). The terminology, precautionary approach and principle are used interchangeably in literature. The application of the precautionary principle in South African legislation and the difficulty that could be experienced in decision making are illustrated in the case study on ‗possible unintended changes in endogenous allergens‘ in GMO maize. The research showed the importance of timely risk communication between risk assessors, risk managers (decision makers) and stakeholders in advance of the commencement of risk assessment. The importance of timely consideration of socio-economic impact of GMOs and pesticides is touched on. Risk governance structures, for both GMOs and pesticides are proposed, based on the most democratic and transparent governance models taking into consideration the European initiatives for improved risk governance. This included an interface for interaction among role players, namely, risk assessors, risk managers, scientists and stakeholders. The up-front role of an array of scientists, as the most trustworthy communicators in contentious scientific issues, is of specific importance because of the fast developing and very broad field of genetic modification of many crops. South Africa‘s national research institutes should play a much bigger role as scientific advisors in scientific risk policy making and framing for risk assessments. It is of great importance that risk assessments are focused on risks and not on the gathering of bucketsful of data; therefore, training in approaches to assessment of risk should be a priority. To achieve improvement on risk governance, the importance of policy development and the roles of all participants should be clear. Proposals for future research cover the many aspects that comprise trust in governance and the increased awareness of consumers and stakeholders of environmental risks and food safety. This study also paves a way for research on governance of phytopesticides and phytomedicines because of growing interest in these rich sources of new information that could be of great benefit to mankind. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Paraclinical Sciences / Unrestricted

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In the past fifty years there has been an incredible amount of change made to the agrarian system of the United States. New discoveries in the realm of biotechnology led to the adoption of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture, and transformed the industry. Due to regulatory policies set during the nineteen-eighties this technology was able to benefit from widespread commercialization. Today, we see the effects of this approach and are entering into a highly volatile political climate in regard to GMOs. This paper aims to provide an analysis of the regulatory system in place and the discrepancies that exist in US policy. The factors evaluated through this thesis include the current US regulatory approach, advancements in biotechnology, and a comparative perspective on US and EU systems. In each of these reviews it is also relevant to mention consumer opinion on GMOs and the role of interest groups. It is important for every American consumer to understand the politics and technology behind their meals. Through the analysis of recent judicial decisions and the enactment of new laws this thesis explains how the use of GMOs in agriculture is causing an unprecedented change to the political structures in place.

Using a critical discourse analysis (CDA), this thesis examines how risks and food security, in relation to Genetically Modified (GM) foods, are constructed within the media context. The project analyzes news articles that appeared in two Canadian newspapers, The Globe and Mail and The Toronto Star, and two British newspapers, The London Times and the Guardian, during three particular time periods between 1997 and 2005. I evaluate whether or not the selected articles contribute to the public’s understanding of science, and how journalism constructs risk and uncertainty. I also evaluate the use of expert knowledge by journalists. Using the theory of Risk Society, as proposed by sociologist Ulrich Beck, the project explores the connections between political, social, and economic issues connected to globalization. This thesis concludes that journalism in both Canada and Britain does not appear to adequately inform their citizens on matters of food security and the risks of GMOs.

O uso da associação entre glifosato e atrazina para a cultura do milho geneticamente modificado tolerante ao glifosato é uma das opções de controle de plantas daninhas nesta cultura. Portanto, o objetivo principal desse trabalho foi avaliar a influência do uso desta associação em um Latossolo vermelho-escuro proveniente do bioma Cerrado do Brasil através dos ensaios de degradação e mineralização desses herbicidas, carbono da biomassa microbiana e carbono mineralizado pelo solo. Os tratamentos para os ensaios de mineralização e degradação constaram da combinação entre 14C-glifosato na dose de campo (2,88Kg ha-1) a 0, 1/2, 1 e 2 vezes a dose de campo de atrazina (3,00Kg ha-1) e 14C-atrazina na dose de campo a 0, 1/2, 1 e 2 vezes a dose de campo de glifosato. A mineralização dos herbicidas foi medida aos 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56 e 63 dias e a degradação aos 0, 7, 28 e 63 dias após o início do experimento. A avaliação do carbono da biomassa microbiana foi realizada aos 21 e 63 dias após o início do ensaio e foram utilizados os mesmos tratamentos com a inclusão de uma prova em branco (solo sem herbicida). O ensaio de mineralização de carbono pelo solo foi feito através da quantificação do CO2 desprendido aos 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56 e 63 dias após o início do ensaio, e também teve a inclusão de uma prova em branco. Os resultados demonstraram influência na degradação e mineralização da atrazina devido a presença do glifosato. A meia-vida de mineralização de atrazina teve uma variação de aproximadamente 100 dias quando foi comparada a aplicação individual de atrazina a associação com o dobro da dose de glifosato. A influência da atrazina na degradação e mineralização de glifosato não foi nítida. A presença de atrazina provocou queda no carbono da biomassa microbiana do solo e ocorreu um aumento na velocidade e quantidade de carbono mineralizado pelo solo. Não houve alteração no carbono da biomassa microbiana do solo e mineralização de carbono pelo solo devido a adição de glifosato. Nos tratamentos em associação, a presença do glifosato no sistema impediu a redução da biomassa microbiana devido ao efeito da atrazina. A associação entre glifosato e atrazina favoreceu a mineralização de carbono pelo solo comparada a aplicação individual de glifosato. Esses resultados demonstram a necessidade por parte da pesquisa em considerar a possibilidade de interação entre os diversos xenobióticos, o que pode alterar seus comportamentos individuais no solo. / The use of glyphosate and atrazine in association for transgenic corn tolerant to glyphosate is an option to weed control in this case. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess the influence of this association in an Oxisoil from Brazil through the degradation, mineralization, microbial biomass and carbon mineralization of soil tests. The treatments of mineralization and degradation tests consisted of the combination between 14C-glyphosate in the field rate (2,88Kg ha-1) and 0, ½, 1 and 2 times the field rate of atrazine (3,00Kg ha-1). The mineralization of herbicides was measured at 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, and 63 days and the degradation was measured at 0, 7, 28 and 63 days after the beginning of the tests. The evaluation of microbial biomass was performed at 21 and 63 days after the beginning of the test and was used the same treatments of the degradation and mineralization tests, but it was included a control (soil without application of herbicides). The test of carbon mineralization of soil was done by measuring the CO2 evolved at 0,7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56 and 63 days after the beginning of the test and had the same control of the microbial biomass test. The results showed an influence on degradation and mineralization of atrazine due to the presence of glyphosate. The half-life of atrazine mineralization had a variation of about 100 days when it was compared the atrazine application alone to its association with glyphosate at double rate. The influence of atrazine in degradation and mineralization of glyphosate wasnt clear. The presence of atrazine caused decrease in the microbial biomass of soil and occurred an increase in speedy and amount of carbon mineralized by soil. No change was observed in microbial biomass and carbon mineralized by soil due to glyphosate application. In the treatments that was used the association, the presence of glyphosate in the system prevented decrease of microbial biomass due to the effect of atrazine. The association between glyphosate and atrazine favored the carbon mineralization by soil when compared to glyphosate applied alone. These results demonstrate a need to consider the possibility of interactions between several xenobiotics, wich can modify their behaviors in the soil.

<p>This study examines the possible incompatibility between environmental conventions and agreements promoting international trade. More specifically, it aims at discussing the Precautionary Principle and the WTO agreements on trade and how they might contradict each other on the international arena. The study focuses on the international trade with genetically modified organisms and discusses probable needs of reformulating the principles and/or conventions concerned if these are to function as tools of equal importance when handling environmental problems through policy making. The controversy is illustrated through a case-study of a trade dispute where the conflicting principles: the Precautionary Principle and WTO agreements on trade are involved, namely a dispute where a formal complaint to the WTO by the US, Canada and Argentina about the European Community supposedly applying a de facto moratorium on genetically modified organisms had the final outcome of the European Community being found to contravene international trade rules. The study concludes that actors on the international arena are still opinions apart concerning the way to perceive possible risks connected to biotechnology and genetically modified organisms. This incongruence is also found to apply to the status of the Precautionary Principle as a rule of international law as well as to which of the conventions that were applicable to the concerned dispute.</p>

This study examines the possible incompatibility between environmental conventions and agreements promoting international trade. More specifically, it aims at discussing the Precautionary Principle and the WTO agreements on trade and how they might contradict each other on the international arena. The study focuses on the international trade with genetically modified organisms and discusses probable needs of reformulating the principles and/or conventions concerned if these are to function as tools of equal importance when handling environmental problems through policy making. The controversy is illustrated through a case-study of a trade dispute where the conflicting principles: the Precautionary Principle and WTO agreements on trade are involved, namely a dispute where a formal complaint to the WTO by the US, Canada and Argentina about the European Community supposedly applying a de facto moratorium on genetically modified organisms had the final outcome of the European Community being found to contravene international trade rules. The study concludes that actors on the international arena are still opinions apart concerning the way to perceive possible risks connected to biotechnology and genetically modified organisms. This incongruence is also found to apply to the status of the Precautionary Principle as a rule of international law as well as to which of the conventions that were applicable to the concerned dispute.

A great effort has been recently devoted to the development of new devices for the detection of specific sequences of DNA, due to increasing need of label - free, fast, cheap, and miniaturized analytical systems able to detect target sequences for screening purposes, especially in food industry for genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In this study, development of a QCM - based DNA biosensor for the detection of the hybridisation of CaMV 35S promoter sequence (P35S) was investigated. Attention was focused on the choice of the coating chemistry that could be used for the immobilisation of probe sequences on the gold surface of the quartz crystal. Two immobilisation procedures were tested and compared considering the amount of the immobilised probe, the extent of the hybridisation reaction, the possibility of regeneration and the absence of non - specific adsorption. The two coating methods were based on the use of self - assembled monolayers. One of them employed the interaction between the thiol and gold for the immobilisation of a thiolated P35S probe, while the other employed formation of functionalised aldehyde groups by ethylenediamine plasma polymerization on the gold surface for the immobilisation of amined P35S probes through gluteraldehyde activation. Results indicated that immobilisation of a thiolated probe provides better immobilisation characteristic, higher sensitivity for the detection of the hybridisation reaction, absence of non - specific adsorption and a higher stability with respect to the regeneration step. The optimised immobilisation procedure for the thiolated probe was used for the detection of P35S sequence in PCR - amplified DNAs and in real samples of pflp - gene inserted tobacco plants that produce ferrodoxin like protein additionally. Fragmentation of the genomic DNAs were achieved by digestion with restriction endonucleases and sonication. The obtained results from the fragmented genomic DNAs demonstrated that it is possible to detect the target sequence directly in non-amplified genomic DNAs by using the developed QCM - based DNA biosensor system. The developed QCM-based DNA biosensor represented promising results for a real-time, label - free, direct detection of DNA samples for the screening of GMOs.

This study was carried out to analyze tomato samples and tomato seeds, purchased from different food markets of Turkey randomly, for the presence of genetic modification by using PCR method as it allows more specific detection. The DNAs of collected samples were isolated according to CTAB DNA extraction protocol and also with extraction kits. Screening tests of tomatoes were done by targeting 35S promoter, NOS terminator and NptII kanamycin resistance gene with eight different primer sets. Real time PCR is used to confirm 35S and NOS positives results obtained from conventional PCR. In this study, it was observed that 14 out of 35 seed samples, and 14 out of 40 fresh tomato samples which were screened had at least one transgenic element of 35S promoter, NOS terminator and NPTII kanamycin resistance gene indicating the possible presence of genetic modifications. After screening, gene specific studies were carried out for PG, sam-k indicating F type ripening delayed tomato and the 35 1 N lines respectively and cry1Ac genes inserted in 5345-1 insect resistant tomato line. PG and sam-k specific primers were not amplified in any of the samples investigated whereas 18 out of 75 samples were cry1Ac positive and 1 out of 75 samples was sam-k positive. Positives were confirmed by sequence analysis. Additionally, construct specific primers specific to 5345-1 and 35 1 N lines were designed. PCR amplicons indicate the existence of the construct sequence. In order to verify the results, PCR products were sent to sequence analysis

As of 2011 a revolutionary ‘movement of movements’ is emerging coterminous with environmental crises and various other crises including corporate globalization. This study sheds theoretical and empirical light on the origins of the movement of movements. Employing gendered, ethnicized class analysis, this study investigates Karl Marx’s (1867) central discovery in Capital volume one, chapter 32 that corporate concentration and organization impels workers to resist and become a revolutionary class for themselves. Data is derived from investigation into the social movement La Via Campesina’s (‘the peasant way’) struggle against Monsanto Corporation in India, the European Union and Brazil during two periods of Monsanto’s concentration (1996–1998 and 2007–2011). Findings indicate that, in the process of Monsanto’s concentration, there was a leap forward in the formation and actions of the movement of movements. This study concludes that corporate concentration and global organization significantly impels the formation of the movement of movements. / Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC)