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Eukaryotic DNA replication is composed of a complex array of molecular biological activities compounded by the pressure for faithful replication in order to maintain genetic and genomic integrity. The constraints governing DNA replication biology is of fundamental importance to understand the degree of replication error and strategies employed by organisms to tackle the threats to replication fidelity from such errors. We apply a simple conceptual model, formalized by the use of probability theory and statistics, to discern fundamental pressures and constraints that optimise complete DNA replication in genomes of different size scales (10 Megabases to 10 Gigabases), spanning the whole eukaryota. We show in yeasts (genome size ~10 Megabases) that the replication origins (sites on DNA where replication can be initiated) are biased towards equal spacing on the genome and the largest gap between adjacent origins is limited compared to that is expected by chance, as well as origins are placed very close to the telomeric ends in order to minimize the replication errors arising from occasional irreversible failures of replication forks. Replication origin mapping data from five different yeasts confirm to all of these predictions. We derive an estimate of ~5.8×10-8 for the fork stalling rate per nucleotide, the one unknown parameter in our theory, which conforms to previous experimental estimates. We show in higher eukaryotes (genome size 100 Megabases to 10 Gigabases) that the bias for equal origin spacing is absent, larger origin gaps contribute more to the errors while the permissible origin separations are restricted by the rate of fork stalling per nucleotide, and in the larger genomes ( > 100 Megabases) errors become increasingly inevitable, yet with low net number of events, that follows a Poisson with small mean. We show, in very large genomes e.g. human genome, that larger gaps contributing most to the error are distributed as a power law to spread the risk of damage from the error, and post-replicative error-correction mechanisms are necessary for containment of the inevitable errors. Replication origin mapping data from yeast, Arabidopsis, Drosophila and human cell lines as well as experimental observations of post replicative error markers validate these predictions. We show that replication errors can be quantified from the nucleosome scale minimum inter-origin distance permissible under the known DNA structure and we propose a universal replication constant maintained across all eukaryotes independent of their architectural complexity. We show this molecular biological constant relates the genome length and developmental robustness of organisms and this is confirmed by early embryonic mortality rates from different organisms. Good agreement of the biologically obtained data to the model predictions in all cases suggests our model efficiently captures the biological complexity involved in containing errors in the DNA replication process. Conceptually, the model thus portrays how simple ideas can help complex biology to elevate our understanding of the continuously increasing knowledge of biological details.

Le génome du virus de l’Hépatite C est constitué d’un ARN monocaténaire linéaire de polarité positive (+). Les interactions ARN-ARN prennent une place essentielle dans la régulation du cycle viral.La synthèse de l’ARN est réalisée par l’ARN-polymérase ARN-dépendante (RdRp) codée par le virus. Elle serait initiée à l’extrémité 3’ des molécules à répliquer. Un ARN génomique complémentaire de polarité négative (-) est d’abord synthétisé. Il sert ensuite de matrice pour la production des brins génomiques. Les mécanismes qui président au recrutement de la polymérase et à l’initiation de la synthèse d’ARN restent, aujourd’hui, mal connus.Les structures ARN présentes aux extrémités 3’ et leurs rôles ont donc étés étudiés au cours des travaux de cette thèse. Au niveau de l’extrémité 3’ de l’ARN (+), la dimérisation a été montrée indispensable à la réplication du virus in cellulo. Ces travaux ont par la suite permis de caractériser par gel retard et cryo-microscopie la dimérisation des ARN génomiques en solution. Au niveau de l’extrémité 3’ de l’ARN (-), la dimérisation de deux molécules a également pu être caractérisée par des approches biochimiques et biophysiques. Par ailleurs la présence d’un G-quadruplex introduit un remaniement conformationnel qui se révèle indispensable à une synthèse performante de l’ARN. De manière similaire au brin génomique, la dynamique structurale résultante de ces interactions semble donc nécessaire à une réplication efficace de l’ARN par la RdRp.Les résultats obtenus soulignent l’importance de la dimérisation et des variations conformationnelles prisent aux extrémités 3’ pour la réplication de l’ARN. Ces données ouvrent alors la voie vers de nouvelles perspectives quant à la compréhension des mécanismes qui président au fonctionnement de la polymérase du VHC. / The hepatitis C virus genome consists of a linear positive sens (+) single-stranded RNA. RNA-RNA interactions play an essential role in the regulation of the viral cycle.RNA synthesis is performed by the RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (RdRp) encoded by the virus. It would be initiated at the 3 'end of the molecule to be replicated. A complementary genomic RNA of negative polarity (-) is first synthesized. It then serves as a matrix for the production of genomic strands. The mechanisms that govern the recruitment of the polymerase and the initiation of RNA synthesis remain poorly understood today.The RNA structures found at the 3 'ends and their roles have therefore been studied during the work of this thesis. At the 3 'end of the (+) RNA, dimerization was shown to be essential for replication of the virus in cellulo. This work made it possible to characterize by gel shift assay and cryo-microscopy the dimerization of the genomic RNAs in solution. At the 3 'end of (-) RNA, the dimerization of two molecules could also be characterized by biochemical and biophysical approaches. Moreover, the presence of a G-quadruplex introduces a conformational reshuffle which proves to be indispensable for an efficient RNA synthesis. Similarly to the genomic strand, the resulting structural dynamics of these interactions appear to be necessary for efficient RNA replication by the RdRp.The results obtained here underline the importance of dimerization and conformational variations at the 3 'ends for RNA replication. These data then open the way to new perspectives on understanding the mechanisms that govern the functioning of HCV polymerase.

Positive-strand RNA viruses associate with specific organelle membranes of host cells to establish viral replication complexes. The replication protein 1a of brome mosaic virus associates strongly with the nuclear endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes, invaginates membranes into the lumen, and recruits various host proteins to establish replication complexes termed spherules. 1a has a strong affinity towards the perinuclear ER membrane, however, the structural features in 1a that dictate its membrane associations and thereby membrane remodeling activities are unclear. This study examined the possible role of an amphipathic α-helix, helix B, in BMV 1a's membrane association. Deletion or single substitution of multiple amino acids of helix B abolished BMV 1a's localization to nuclear ER membranes. Additional reporter-based, gain-of-function assays showed that helix B is sufficient in targeting several soluble proteins to the nuclear ER membranes. Furthermore, we found that the helix B-mediated organelle targeting is a functionally conserved feature among positive-strand RNA viruses of the alphavirus-like superfamily that includes notable human viruses such as Hepatitis E virus and Rubella virus as well as plant viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus and cowpea chlorotic mottle virus. Our results demonstrate a critical role for helix B across members of the alphavirus-like superfamily in anchoring viral replication complexes to the organelle membranes. We anticipate our findings to be a starting point for the development of sophisticated models to use helix B as a novel target for the development of antivirals for positive-strand RNA viruses that belong to the alphavirus-like superfamily. / Doctor of Philosophy / Among the seven classes of viruses, the positive-strand RNA viruses dominate the domain of viral diseases of the world. Brome mosaic virus (BMV) is a positive-strand RNA virus that infects cereal crops such as wheat, barley, and rice. BMV has a simple genome organization and serves as a suitable model virus to study and characterize positive-strand RNA viruses. The replication of all positive-strand RNA viruses occurs at the organelle membranes of the host. Membrane association of the replication is one of the early steps and a crucial event in the life cycle of positive-strand RNA viruses. One of the proteins produced early on during BMV infection is the replication protein 1a, which is also the master regulator of viral replication; 1a recruits viral factors in addition to hijacking the necessary host factors at the membranous sites to initiate replication. Upon reaching the organelle membranes, 1a induces membrane rearrangements to form viral replication complexes that safeguard the recruited factors from the deleterious effects of the host cell. The structural determinants within 1a that are responsible for such membrane association are unknown. This study explored the potential roles of a short helical motif within the 1a protein for its ability to dictate such site-specific membrane associations. We show here that this helical region is necessary and sufficient for 1a's membrane-binding activity. We also discovered it to be a functionally conserved feature that is responsible for membrane associations in various viruses of the alphavirus-like superfamily that includes some of the notable human viruses such as Hepatitis E virus and Rubella virus in addition to plant viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus and cowpea chlorotic mottle virus.

Rotaviruses (RVs) are medically significant gastrointestinal pathogens and are a leading cause of childhood mortality in many countries. The RV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, VP1, synthesizes RNA during viral replication only in the presence of another RV protein, VP2, which comprises the innermost core shell layer of the virion. Though these VP1-VP2 interactions are essential for RV replication, the mechanism by which the core shell regulates polymerase activity remains incompletely understood. Here, we sought to identify and characterize specific regions of both VP1 and VP2 that are required for core shell dependent polymerase activity. First, we used bioinformatics approaches to analyze VP1 and VP2 sequence diversity across many RV strains and identify positional locations of critical amino acid changes within the context of known structural domains and motifs. We next tested how the identified sequence differences influenced VP2-dependent VP1 activity in vitro. These data revealed that VP1 and VP2 protein diversity correlates with functional differences between avian and mammalian RV strains. Then, we used these sequential and functional incompatibilities to map key regions of VP1 important for mediating RNA synthesis. To pinpoint critical interacting regions of VP1 and VP2, we used site directed mutagenesis to engineer several modified VP1 and VP2 proteins. Then, we employed an in vitro RNA synthesis assay to test how the introduced mutations influenced VP2-dependent VP1 activity. Altogether, our results revealed several functionally important VP1 residues critical for in vitro VP2-dependent VP1 activity, either individually or in combination with neighboring residues, including E265/L267, R614, and D971/S978/I980. Structural analyses show VP2 interactions at these surface-exposed VP1 sites, which altogether supports a direct contact model of core shell dependent RV polymerase activity. Moreover, recombinant VP1 proteins containing multiple mutations at buried residues were incapable of facilitating RNA synthesis in vitro under the assay conditions, indicating that an extensive intramolecular signaling network exists to mediate VP1 activity. Taken together, these results suggest that VP2 binding at the VP1 surface may induce intramolecular interactions critical for VP1 activity. Overall, results from these studies provide important insight into VP1-VP2 binding interface(s) that are necessary for RV replication. / Ph. D. / Rotaviruses (RVs) are clinically-significant gastrointestinal pathogens that cause severe diarrhea and dehydration in children. RVs encode a specialized polymerase enzyme, called VP1, which functions to synthesize RNA during viral replication. RNA synthesis activities of VP1 are tightly regulated by another RV protein, VP2, which comprises the innermost core shell layer of the virion. Though these VP1-VP2 interactions are essential for viral replication, the mechanism by which the core shell supports polymerase activity remains poorly understood. Here, we sought to identify and characterize specific regions of both VP1 and VP2 that are essential for polymerase activity in a test tube (i.e., in vitro). First, we analyzed VP1 and VP2 sequence diversity across many RV strains. Then, we tested how the identified sequence differences influenced VP2-dependent VP1 activation in vitro. To pinpoint critical regions of VP1 and VP2, we next engineered and assayed several mutant proteins. Altogether, our results revealed several functionally important residues of VP1 and VP2, which raises new ideas about VP1-VP2 binding interface(s) that are important for viral replication. Moreover, results from these studies may provide a scientific platform for the rational design of next-generation RV vaccines or antiviral therapeutics.

Jusqu'à présent, les modifications de la réplication de l'ADN entre cellules normales et cancéreuses ont été peu étudiées. Dans ce travail, nous avons utilisé le séquençage des fragments d'Okazaki, une technique récemment développée au laboratoire, pour déterminer la directionalité des fourches de réplication dans plusieurs lymphomes de Burkitt (LB), qui surexpriment l'oncoprotéine Myc à la suite de translocations chromosomiques spécifiques, ainsi que dans des lignées lymphoblastoides contrôles (LLC) et dans des léiomyosarcomes (LMS). Les profils de directionalité des fourches de réplication permettent de déduire la localisation et l'efficacité des sites d'initiation et de terminaison de la réplication le long du génome. Nous avons observé de nombreuses (~2000) différences de zones d'initiation entre les lignées Raji (LB) et GM06990 (LLC) ainsi qu'entre les lignées BL 79 et IARC385, une paire LB/LLC provenant d'un même patient. Nous avons détecté un nombre comparable de différences en comparant deux à deux les lignées étudiées. Cependant, les profils de BL79 et de Raji (deux LB) sont un peu plus proches l'un de l'autre que de la lignée contrôle GM06990. Ceci suggère l'existence de changements de la réplication récurrents dans les lignées LB. L'importance des différences observées entre les lignées IARC385 et GM06990 indique de façon surprenante une grande variabilité entre les LLC normales, provenant de différents individus. De façon intéressante, de nombreuses différences observées entre les lignées LB et LLC sont associées à des changements de l'expression des gènes ou de la liaison de l'oncoprotéine Myc. La comparaison des profils des deux LMS avec tous les profils disponibles au laboratoire montre que c'est à celui de fibroblastes normaux (IMR90) qu'ils ressemblent le plus. Ceci suggère que les cellules de tumeurs musculaires lisses auraient subi une transformation fibroblastique au cours de la tumorigénèse. Des données récentes suggèrent que les champs magnétiques peuvent perturber certains processus cellulaires comme l'assemblage du cytosquelette. Nous avons utilisé le séquençage de fragment d'Okazaki pour rechercher d'éventuels effets d'un champ magnétique sur la réplication de l'ADN chez la levure. Aucun effet du champ magnétique sur la directionalité des fourches de réplication n'a été détecté. / Changes in DNA replication profiles between cancer and normal cells have been poorly explored. In this work, sequencing of Okazaki fragments, a novel methodology developed in the laboratory, was used to determine replication fork directionality (RFD) in several Burkitt's lymphomas (BL), which overexpress the Myc oncoprotein due to specific chromosomal translocations, and control normal lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCL), and in leiomyosarcomas (LMC). RFD profiles allow to infer the location and efficiency of replication initiation and termination sites genome-wide. A larger number (~2000) of differences in replication initiation zones were observed genome-wide between Raji (BL) and GM06990 (LCL), and between BL79 and IAR385, a BL / LCL pair of cell lines established from a single patient. Comparably large numbers of changes were slightly more similar to each other than to GM06990. This suggests the occurrence of some recurrent replication changes in BL cell lines. The large number of changes observed between IARC385 and GM06990 also indicates an unexpectedly large variation between normal LCLs of different individuals. Interestingly, many changes in RFD profiles between BLs and and LCLs are associated with cell-type specific gene expression and differential binding of the Myc oncoprotein. Comparison of the two LMS profiles with all RFD profiles available in the laboratory reveals that they most resemble normal fibroblasts (IMR90). This suggests that the smooth muscle cancer cells might have undergone a fibroblastic transformation during tumorigenesis. Magnetic fields have been reported to perturb cellular processes such as cytoskeleton assembly. Sequencing of Okazaki fragments was used in a preliminary investigation of the possible effects of magnetic fields on DNA replication in yeast cells. No effect of magnetic fields on replication fork directionality were observed.

Arenaviruses are enveloped negative-strand RNA viruses that cause significant human disease. Despite decades of research, it is still unclear how these viruses establish a lifelong, asymptomatic infection in their rodent hosts while infection of humans often results in severe disease. Unable to enter a state of bona fide latency, the transcription and replication of the viral genomic RNA is likely highly regulated in time and subcellular space. Moreover, we hypothesize that the viral nucleoprotein (NP), responsible for the encapsidation of the viral RNA and the most highly expressed viral gene product, plays a key role in the regulation of the viral gene expression program. Further, exploring host-virus interactions may elucidate the basic aspects of arenavirus biology and how they cause such severe disease in humans. To explore these questions in greater detail, this dissertation has pursued three main avenues. First, to better understand lymphocytic choriomeningitis mammarenavirus (LCMV) genome replication and transcription at the single-cell level, we established a high-throughput, single-molecule (sm)FISH image acquisition and analysis pipeline and followed viral RNA species from viral entry through the late stages of persistent infection in vitro. This work provided support for a cyclical model of persistence where individual cells are initially transiently infected, clear active infection, and become re-infected from neighboring reservoir cells within the population. Second, we used FISH to visualize viral genomic RNA to describe the subcellular sites where LCMV RNAs localize during infection. We observed that, viral RNA concentrates in large subcellular structures located near the cellular microtubule organizing center and colocalizes with the early endosomal marker Rab5c and the viral glycoprotein in a proportion of infected cells. We propose that the virus is using the surface of a cellular membrane bound organelle as a site for the pre-assembly of viral components including genomic RNA and viral glycoprotein prior to their transport to the plasma membrane where new particles will bud. Last, we used mass spectrometry to identify human proteins that interact with the NPs of LCMV and Junín mammareanavirus (JUNV) strain Candid #1. We provided a detailed map of the host machinery engaged by arenavirus NPs, and in particular, showed that NP associates with the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase (PKR), a well-characterized antiviral protein that inhibits cap-dependent protein translation initiation via phosphorylation of eIF2α. We demonstrated that JUNV antagonizes the antiviral activity of PKR completely, effectively abrogating the antiviral activity of this surveillance pathway. In sum, the work composing this dissertation has given us fresh insight into how arenaviruses establish and maintain persistence; the nature of the subcellular site where viral genomic RNA is transcribed, replicated, and assembled with other viral components; and a global view of the cellular machinery hijacked by the viral nucleoprotein. This work improves our basic understanding of the arenavirus life cycle and may suggest novel antiviral therapeutic targets that could be exploited in the future.

RNA sequences and higher-order structures in the 5’ and 3’ untranslated regions (UTRs) of positive-strand RNA viruses are known to function as cis-acting elements for translation, replication, and transcription. In coronaviruses, these are best characterized in the group 2a bovine coronavirus (BCoV) and mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), yet their precise mechanistic features are largely undefined. Here, we use a reverse genetics system in MHV to exploit the ~30% nt sequence divergence between BCoV and MHV to establish structure/function relationships of 5’ UTR cis-replication elements. It had been previously shown that a precise replacement of the 391-nt MHV 3’ UTR with the 288-nt BCoV 3’ UTR yields wt-like MHV. Our attempts to replace the 209-nt MHV 5’ UTR with the 210-nt BCoV 5’ UTR, however, yielded a non-viable chimera. Therefore, a systematic analysis of individual 5’-terminal structures was made to identify compatible elements. By placing each of four putative cis-acting domains from the BCoV 5’ UTR into the MHV genome, we learned that (i) stem-loops (SLs) I & II and SLIII are functionally compatible, (ii) SLIV is compatible if it spans parts of the 5’ UTR and the nonstructural protein 1 (nsp1) cistron, thus identifying this part of ORF 1 as a component of the cis-replication signal, (iii) a relatively unstructured 32-nt region mapping between SLIII and SLIV defines a novel virus species-specific cis-replication element, (iv) spontaneous suppressor mutations within MHV SLI and nsp1 cistron compensated for growth defects arising from the BCoV 32-nt element in the MHV genome, (v) cross talk between the 32-nt element, SLI, and the nsp1 cistron appears essential for virus replication, (vi) the BCoV 5’ UTR and nsp1 cistron function together in the MHV genome to generate a wt-like MHV phenotype, and (vii) a functional 5’ UTR-nsp1 domain in group 2a coronaviruses cannot be substituted by the corresponding genomic element from the group 2b SARS-CoV. We postulate that the interaction between the 5’ UTR and nsp1 cistron (or possibly nsp1 protein) functions as a molecular switch between genome translation and ignition of negative-strand RNA synthesis.