O poliestireno expandido (EPS), conhecido popularmente no Brasil como Isopor®, foi introduzido recentemente no país como material de baixa massa específica para construções de aterros, principalmente sobre solos moles, e encontro de pontes. Contudo, ainda não há experiência consolidada deste material em ensaios do ponto de vista da engenharia geotécnica entre nós. Este trabalho apresenta os resultados da primeira pesquisa com ensaios mecânicos e hidráulicos de laboratório específicos da caracterização do EPS para o uso geotécnico. Os ensaios mecânicos compreenderam compressão uniaxial simples e cíclica, compressão triaxial, cisalhamento direto e de interface (junta) e fluência em compressão. Os ensaios hidráulicos incluíram absorção de água por imersão e permeabilidade. Um ensaio de perda de massa por ataque de roedores foi realizado de forma simples, e ensaios químicos foram feitos para estudar o polímero. As amostras ensaiadas foram escolhidas de modo a se abranger ao máximo àquelas utilizadas em obras. Tentou-se, também, antecipar a utilização de amostras não convencionais, com massas específicas elevadas e de materiais reciclados. Os resultados mostram que o EPS possui uma grande resistência a solicitações de compressão simples, cíclica e triaxial, de cisalhamento, elevado valor de ângulo de atrito da junta e absorção de água, permeabilidade variável com a massa específica e baixo coeficiente de Poisson. Estas propriedades chave, aliado ao baixo peso específico oferecem a este material um grande potencial de aplicação como geossintético na engenharia geotécnica. / Expanded polystyrene (EPS), in Brazil, commonly know as Isopor®, has been recently introduced in this country as lightweight material for construction of embankments on soft soils, and bridge abutments. Despite this fact, there is no consolidated experience, in Brazil, in testing this product from a geotechnical point of view. This paper presents the first research data, obtained in Brazil, on mechanical and hydraulic laboratory tests, aiming the characterization of EPS samples specifically for geotechnical use. The mechanical tests comprised simple and cyclic unconfined compression, triaxial compression, joint and direct shear and creep in compression. The hydraulic tests included water absorption by immersion and water permeability. A simple loss weight test by mice attack was also conducted. And chemical tests were done to study the polymer. The results show that EPS has a great resistance to simple, cyclic and triaxial compression and joint shear solicitation, high friction angle and water absorption, varied permeability with the density and low Poisson coefficient. These key properties with its very low density give this material large potential application for geosynthetic use in geotechnical engineering.

O poliestireno expandido (EPS), conhecido popularmente no Brasil como Isopor®, foi introduzido recentemente no país como material de baixa massa específica para construções de aterros, principalmente sobre solos moles, e encontro de pontes. Contudo, ainda não há experiência consolidada deste material em ensaios do ponto de vista da engenharia geotécnica entre nós. Este trabalho apresenta os resultados da primeira pesquisa com ensaios mecânicos e hidráulicos de laboratório específicos da caracterização do EPS para o uso geotécnico. Os ensaios mecânicos compreenderam compressão uniaxial simples e cíclica, compressão triaxial, cisalhamento direto e de interface (junta) e fluência em compressão. Os ensaios hidráulicos incluíram absorção de água por imersão e permeabilidade. Um ensaio de perda de massa por ataque de roedores foi realizado de forma simples, e ensaios químicos foram feitos para estudar o polímero. As amostras ensaiadas foram escolhidas de modo a se abranger ao máximo àquelas utilizadas em obras. Tentou-se, também, antecipar a utilização de amostras não convencionais, com massas específicas elevadas e de materiais reciclados. Os resultados mostram que o EPS possui uma grande resistência a solicitações de compressão simples, cíclica e triaxial, de cisalhamento, elevado valor de ângulo de atrito da junta e absorção de água, permeabilidade variável com a massa específica e baixo coeficiente de Poisson. Estas propriedades chave, aliado ao baixo peso específico oferecem a este material um grande potencial de aplicação como geossintético na engenharia geotécnica. / Expanded polystyrene (EPS), in Brazil, commonly know as Isopor®, has been recently introduced in this country as lightweight material for construction of embankments on soft soils, and bridge abutments. Despite this fact, there is no consolidated experience, in Brazil, in testing this product from a geotechnical point of view. This paper presents the first research data, obtained in Brazil, on mechanical and hydraulic laboratory tests, aiming the characterization of EPS samples specifically for geotechnical use. The mechanical tests comprised simple and cyclic unconfined compression, triaxial compression, joint and direct shear and creep in compression. The hydraulic tests included water absorption by immersion and water permeability. A simple loss weight test by mice attack was also conducted. And chemical tests were done to study the polymer. The results show that EPS has a great resistance to simple, cyclic and triaxial compression and joint shear solicitation, high friction angle and water absorption, varied permeability with the density and low Poisson coefficient. These key properties with its very low density give this material large potential application for geosynthetic use in geotechnical engineering.

Vertical inclusions of expanded polystyrene (EPS) placed behind rigid retaining walls were investigated as geofoam seismic buffers to reduce earthquake-induced loads. A numerical model was developed using the program FLAC and the model validated against 1-g shaking table test results of EPS geofoam seismic buffer models. Two constitutive models for the component materials were examined: elastic-perfectly plastic with Mohr-Coulomb (M-C) failure criterion and non-linear hysteresis damping model with equivalent linear method (ELM) approach. It was judged that the M-C model was sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. The mechanical property of interest to attenuate dynamic loads using a seismic buffer was the buffer stiffness defined as K = E/t (E = buffer elastic modulus, t = buffer thickness). For the range of parameters investigated in this study, K ≤ 50 MN/m3 was observed to be the practical range for the optimal design of these systems. Parametric numerical analyses were performed to generate design charts that can be used for the preliminary design of these systems. A new high capacity shaking table facility was constructed at RMC that can be used to study the seismic performance of earth structures. Reduced-scale models of geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) walls were built on this shaking table and then subjected to simulated earthquake loading conditions. In some shaking table tests, combined use of EPS geofoam and horizontal geosynthetic reinforcement layers was investigated. Numerical models were developed using program FLAC together with ELM and M-C constitutive models. Physical and numerical results were compared against predicted values using analysis methods found in the journal literature and in current North American design guidelines. The comparison shows that current Mononobe-Okabe (M-O) based analysis methods could not consistently satisfactorily predict measured reinforcement connection load distributions at all elevations under both static and dynamic loading conditions. The results from GRS model wall tests with combined EPS geofoam and geosynthetic reinforcement layers show that the inclusion of a EPS geofoam layer behind the GRS wall face can reduce earth loads acting on the wall facing to values well below those recorded for conventional GRS wall model configurations. / Thesis (Ph.D, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2011-04-28 16:56:57.084

Αντικείμενο της Διατριβής αποτελεί η διερεύνηση των δυνατοτήτων του Γεωαφρού Διογκωμένης Πολυστερίνης (ΓΔΠ) για τη χρησιμοποίησή του ως σεισμικό μονωτικό παρέμβλημα σε συμβατικούς τοίχους εδαφικής αντιστήριξης (τύπου βαρύτητας ή προβόλου) καθώς και σε ακρόβαθρα γεφυρών. Η παρούσα έρευνα βασίζεται στην αριθμητική ανάλυση της συμπεριφοράς συμβατικών τοίχων αντιστήριξης κάτω από τη δράση οριζόντιας σεισμικής διέγερσης βάσης. Οι αναλύσεις διεξάγονται τόσο για μη-μονωμένους τοίχους όσο και για τοίχους σεισμικά μονωμένους με παρέμβλημα ΓΔΠ. Το παρέμβλημα έχει τη μορφή κατακόρυφου φύλλου μικρού σχετικά πάχους που τοποθετείται σε επαφή με την πίσω όψη του τοίχου παρεμβαλλόμενο μεταξύ τοίχου και επιχώματος. Οι αναλύσεις διεξάγονται χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο πεπερασμένων στοιχείων (κώδικας PLAXIS v.8) με την παραδοχή ιξωδοελαστικής συμπεριφοράς εδαφικού επιχώματος και κατακόρυφου ελαστικού τοίχου δεδομένης ευκαμψίας και στροφικής αντίστασης της βάσης. Ως δυναμική διέγερση βάσης χρησιμοποιούνται αρμονικές χρονοϊστορίες επιτάχυνσης μεταβαλλόμενου εύρους και συχνότητας. Κατ’ αρχήν αξιολογείται η αξιοπιστία της χρησιμοποιούμενης μεθόδου ανάλυσης και τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων συγκρίνονται με ανάλογα δημοσιευμένα αποτελέσματα και διαπιστώνεται πολύ καλή συμφωνία όσον αφορά την τιμή της σεισμικής ώθησης και το ύψος εφαρμογής της από τη βάση του τοίχου. Για την περίπτωση των σεισμικά μονωμένων (με παρέμβλημα ΓΔΠ) τοίχων οι εξεταζόμενες παράμετροι περιλαμβάνουν το σχήμα του παρεμβλήματος, την πυκνότητα και το ποσοστιαίο (σε σχέση με το ύψος του τοίχου) πάχος του ΓΔΠ, tr, την ευκαμψία του τοίχου, την καθ’ ύψος μεταβολή του μέτρου ελαστικότητας του ΓΔΠ και τη συχνότητα διέγερσης της βάσης. Η αποτελεσματικότητα της σεισμικής μόνωσης περιγράφεται ποσοτικά με τον συντελεστή Ar που ορίζεται ως το επί τοις εκατό ποσοστό της μείωσης (λόγω μόνωσης) της σεισμικής ώθησης σε σχέση με την τιμή που προκύπτει χωρίς μόνωση. Σχετικά με το σχήμα του παρεμβλήματος (κατά την έννοια του ύψους του τοίχου) διεξήχθησαν αναλύσεις για ορθογωνικό σχήμα και τρία τριγωνικά σχήματα και τα αποτελέσματα υποδεικνύουν ότι η βέλτιστη αποτελεσματικότητα επιτυγχάνεται με χρήση ορθογωνικού σχήματος. Επίσης διαπιστώθηκε ότι είναι δυνατή η επίτευξη τιμών της αποτελεσματικότητας σεισμικής μόνωσης Ar>50% για τιμές πάχους παρεμβλήματος tr 15%. Τα αποτελέσματα υποδεικνύουν επίσης ότι, επειδή η προκύπτουσα σχέση Ar - tr είναι μη γραμμική, απαιτούνται σχετικά μεγάλα πάχη παρεμβλήματος για τη μείωση της σεισμικής ώθησης σε ποσοστό μεγαλύτερο του 50%. Τέλος, για τον αντισεισμικό σχεδιασμό τοίχων αντιστήριξης προτείνεται δοκιμαστικά η εφαρμογή διαδικασίας που βασίζεται στον ΕΑΚ 2000, χρησιμοποιώντας όμως διπλάσια τιμή για το συντελεστή συμπεριφοράς, qw, εφόσον επιδιώκεται η επίτευξη αποτελεσματικότητας Ar=50%. / The objective of the Thesis is the investigation of the possibility to use the Expanded Polystyrene Geofoam (EPS Geofoam) for the seismic isolation of earth retaining walls. The research is based on the results of numerical analyses (using the finite element method) for determining the response of vertical walls supporting horizontal backfill and subjected to horizontal harmonic base excitation. The seismic isolation is realized by placing a column of EPS geofoam (compressible inclusion) between the back-face of the wall and the backfill. The response is calculated by using elastic analysis (with viscous damping for the backfill material). The efficiency of seismic isolation is quantitavely described by the Isolation Efficiency, Ar, defined as the ratio (in percent) of the reduction of earthquake thrust (due to isolation) to the earthquake thrust without isolation. The parameters investigated are the shape of the inclusion, the density and the (percent) thickness, tr, of the EPS geofoam, the wall flexibility, the variation of EPS geofoam modulus of elasticity with depth as well as the amplitude and frequency of excitation. The results of the analyses indicate that the optimum shape of the inclusion is the orthogonal (i.e. constant thickness with depth) whereas the effect of the inhomogeneity of the EPS geofoam along the depth of the wall is negligible, as long as the analysis is conducted using a constant mean value for the Modulus of Elasticity of EPS. The results also indicate that an Isolation Efficiency of about 50% may be achieved by using an inclusion thickness of about 15% of the wall height. Due to the nonlinearity of the relation Ar – tr, further increase of the inclusion thickness has a minor effect on the isolation efficiency of the inclusion. Based on the results of all analyses a tentative procedure is proposed for the earthquake resistant design of earth retaining walls. According to the procedure, the wall is designed following the methodology of the Hellenic Seismic Code (2000) and using qw values twice as those indicated by the Code. The required thickness of the EPS inclusion, tr, is then selected from a diagram relating the tr value to the flexibility of the wall and the density of the inclusion.

Orientador: Paulo César Lodi / Resumo: Esse trabalho avaliou as propriedades do poliestireno expandido (EPS) para verificar a viabilidade e emprego deste em obras geotécnicas. Foram estudadas as propriedades mecânicas e hidráulicas do material, por meio de ensaios de resistência ao cisalhamento direto, compressão triaxial, compressão uniaxial simples e cíclica, absorção de água, permeabilidade e empuxo conforme as normas vigentes e métodos utilizados pela literatura corrente. Utilizou-se uma gama variada de massas específicas de EPS (10, 15, 20, 25 e 30 kg/m3), incluindo duas recicladas (10 e 12,5 kg/m³). Os principais resultados mostram que os parâmetros de resistência ao cisalhamento direto apresentam variações crescentes conforme aumenta-se a massa específica, assim como os valores de resistência à compressão simples e cíclica. O mesmo é valido para o módulo de elasticidade, que também aumenta com a massa específica. As amostras de baixa massa específica apresentaram um significante intercepto coesivo, enquanto que as maiores possuem elevada parcela de ângulo de atrito. Os parâmetros de absorção de água tendem a diminuir com o aumento da massa específica e todas apresentaram valores muito proximos de permeabilidade. Além disso, valor de 20 kg/m³ é um valor de transição da massa específica com relação ao comportamento das amostras. / Abstract: This work evaluated the properties of expanded polystyrene (EPS) to verify its feasibility and use in geotechnical works. The mechanical and hydraulic properties of the material were studied by tests of direct shear strength, triaxial, simple and cyclic uniaxial compression, water absorption, permeability and thrust according to current standards and methods used in the current literature. A wide range of specific masses (10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 kg/m³) were used, including two recycled (10 and 12.5 kg/m³). The main results show that the direct shear strength parameters show increasing variations as the specific mass increases, as well as the simple and cyclic compressive strength values. The same is true for the modulus of elasticity, which also increases with the specific mass. The samples of low specific mass presented a significant cohesive intercept, while the larger ones had a high proportion of friction angle. Water absorption parameters tend to decrease with increasing specific mass and all presented very close permeability values. In addition, a value of 20 kg/m³ is a specific mass transition value with respect to sample behavior. / Mestre

Static and dynamic interaction mechanism of the retained soil-compressible geofoam buffer and yielding retaining structures requires further investigation. The present study, initiated on this motive, discusses the results of 1-g physical model tests and numerical analyses of cantilever retaining walls with and without deformable geofoam buffers between the wall and cohesionless granular backfill. 0.7m high walls with various wall thicknesses were utilized in the physical modeling. Dynamic tests were carried out by using a laminar container placed on a uni-axial shaking table. Influence of buffer thickness, geofoam type and wall flexibility as well as base excitation characteristics on the lateral earth pressures and flexural wall deflections were under concern. Outcomes of the analyses performed with FLAC-2D (v6.0) finite difference code were validated against the results of the physical model tests. It was observed that the arching effect induced in the retained soil by the lateral compression of the lower half of the geofoam buffer has a positive effect, as this zone is able to absorb a portion of the total unbalanced lateral force exerted by the backfill thus causing a reduction in the static and seismic lateral wall pressures. Relative thickness and stiffness of the geofoam buffer appear to be the most dominant factors affecting the reduction in earth thrust. Lateral earth pressure coefficients determined from physical model tests were compared with those calculated using methods available in the literature. Good agreement was observed between the predictions. Graphs were provided to estimate the static and dynamic lateral earth pressure coefficients for various combinations of wall stiffness and buffer characteristics. Analysis of a 6m high prototype cantilever wall subjected to an excitation recorded in August 17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake by finite difference method exhibited the contribution of geofoam buffers on seismic performance of cantilever earth retaining walls. It was observed that the presence of an EPS geofoam inclusion provides a reduction of the permanent flexural wall deflections as well as total seismic thrust likely to be experienced by the wall during an earthquake.