West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging infectious disease that has widespread implications for public health practitioners across the world. Within a few years of its arrival in the United States the virus had spread across the North American continent. This research focuses on the development of a spatially explicit GIS-based predictive epidemiological model based on suitable environmental factors. We examined eleven commonly mapped environmental factors using both ordinary least squares regression (OLS) and geographically weighted regression (GWR). The GWR model was utilized to ascertain the impact of environmental factors on WNV risk patterns without the confounding effects of spatial non-stationarity that exist between place and health. It identifies the important underlying environmental factors related to suitable mosquito habitat conditions to make meaningful and spatially explicit predictions. Our model represents a multi-criteria decision analysis approach to create disease risk maps under data sparse situations. The best fitting model with an adjusted R2 of 0.71 revealed a strong association between WNV infection risk and a subset of environmental risk factors including road density, stream density, and land surface temperature. This research also postulates that understanding the underlying place characteristics and population composition for the occurrence of WNV infection is important for mitigating future outbreaks. While many spatial and aspatial models have attempted to predict the risk of WNV transmission, efforts to link these factors within a GIS framework are limited. One of the major challenges for such integration is the high dimensionality and large volumes typically associated with such models and data. This research uses a spatially explicit, multivariate geovisualization framework to integrate an environmental model of mosquito habitat with human risk factors derived from socio-economic and demographic variables. Our results show that such an integrated approach facilitates the exploratory analysis of complex data and supports reasoning about the underlying spatial processes that result in differential risks for WNV. This research provides different tools and techniques for predicting the WNV epidemic and provides more insights into targeting specific areas for controlling WNV outbreaks.

Mapas pedológicos são importantes fontes de informação necessárias à agricultura, mas praticamente inexistentes em escalas adequadas para o Brasil, e seu levantamento pelo método convencional para a demanda brasileira é inviável. Como alternativa ao problema, mapeamento pedológico digital apresenta-se como uma área do conhecimento que envolve as relações das informações de campo, laboratório e pontuais de solos com métodos quantitativos via imagens de satélite e atributos do relevo para inferir atributos e classes. A literatura destaca, portanto, a importância do estudo da posição espacial de pontos amostrais na estimativa de atributos do solo a partir dos valores espectrais de imagens de satélite, aliado a isso, faz-se importante o cruzamento dos atributos do solo estimados e espacializados para chegar a classes de solo. Face ao exposto, o objetiva-se o desenvolvimento de uma técnica via imagem de satélite, dados espectrais e atributos do relevo, integrados por lógica booleana, para determinar mapas pedológicos. O trabalho foi realizado no município de Rio das Pedras, SP e entornos, numa área total de 47.882 ha. Onde, realizou-se processamento de imagens de satélites multitemporais, para obtenção da informação espectral da superfície de solo exposto. Esta informação foi correlacionada com espectro de laboratório de pontos amostrais em subsuperfície (profundidade 80-100 cm) e estimou-se os espectros simulando bandas de satélite para locais desconhecidos. Elaborou-se uma chave de classificação de solos por cruzamento de mapas de atributos via lógica booleana, onde definiu os seguintes atributos a serem mapeados: argila, V% e matéria orgânica (M.O) na profundidade 0-20 cm e argila, CTC, V%, m%, Al, ferro total, matiz, valor e croma na profundidade 80-100 cm. As estimativas de espectros em subsuperfície e dos atributos dos solos nas duas profundidades foram realizadas pela técnica multivariada regressão geograficamente ponderada (GWR), que teve seu desempenho preditivo avaliado pela comparação com desempenho preditivo da técnica de regressão linear múltipla (MRL). Os resultados mostraram correlação entre os espectros das duas profundidades, com R2 de validação acima 0.6. Argila (0-20 e 80-100 cm), matiz, valor e croma foram os atributos do solo que obtiveram as melhores estimativas com R2 acima 0.6. A técnica multivariada GWR obteve-se desempenho superior ao MRL. O mapa pedológico digital comparado aos mapas de solos detalhados de levantamentos convencionais obteve índice kappa de 34.65% e acurácia global de 54,46%. Tal resultado representa um nível regular de classificação. Por outro lado, deve se considerar que se trata de uma região de alta complexidade geológica e compreendendo heterogeneidade de solos. A técnica desenvolvida mostra-se com potencial de evolução no mapeamento digital de solos à medida que forem evoluindo as estimativas de atributos de solos e ajustes nos critérios da chave de classificação. / Soil maps are important sources of information necessary for agriculture, but practically absent in appropriate scales for Brazil, and its mapping by the conventional method for the brazilian demand is impracticable. How an alternative to the problem, digital pedological mapping appears as an area of knowledge that involves the relationship of field information, laboratory and point of soils with quantitative methods by satellite images and relief attributes to predict attributes and classes. The literature highlights therefore the importance of studying the spatial position of sampling points in the estimation of soil attributes from spectral values of satellite images, combined to this, is an important the crossing of the estimated and spatialized soil attributes to get the soil classes. In view of exposed, the objective is the development of a technique satellite image, spectral data and attributes of relief, integrated by boolean logic to determine soil maps. The work was carried out in Rio das Pedras county, SP, and surroundings, in a total area of 47,882 ha. Which was held processing multitemporal satellite images, to obtain spectral information of exposed soil surface. This information was correlated with laboratory spectra of sample points in the subsurface (depth 80-100 cm) and was estimated spectra simulating satellite bands to unknown locations. Produced is a soil classification key for cross attribute maps by boolean logic, which defines the following attributes to be mapped: clay, cation saturation and organic matter (OM) in the 0-20 cm depth and clay, CEC, cation saturation, aluminiu saturation, Al, total iron, hue, value and chroma in depth 80-100 cm. The estimates spectra subsurface and soil attributes in two depths were performed by multivariate technique geographically weighted regression (GWR), which had its predictive performance is evaluated by comparison with predictive performance of multiple linear regression (MRL). The results showed a correlation between the spectra of the two depths, with validation R2 above 0.6. Clay (0-20 and 80-100 cm), hue, value and chroma were the soil attributes obtained the best estimates R2 above 0.6. The GWR multivariate technique yielded better performance than MRL. The digital soil map compared to the detailed soil maps of conventional surveys obtained kappa index of 34.65% and overall accuracy of 54.46%. This result is a regular level of classification. On the other hand, it must be considered that it is a highly complex geological region and comprising heterogeneity of soils. The technique developed shows with potential developments in digital soil mapping as they evolve estimates of soil attributes and adjustments to the classification key criteria.

Nós investigamos as relações entre a diversidade e a estrutura do componente arbóreo com as variáveis ambientais, em quatro posições microtopográficas (MPs), ao longo de um gradiente formado entre zonas úmidas depressionais florestadas e terras firmes em jaboticabais (FDWs) no Planalto Sul-Brasileiro. A riqueza específica e a diversidade foram similares nas terras firmes e menores nas zonas úmidas, enquanto que os parâmetros estruturais diferiram pouco entre as MPs. Uma análise de espécies indicadoras mostrou que poucas espécies são indicadoras das terras firmes, revelando que a distribuição das espécies foi relativamente uniforme em comparação às zonas úmidas. Os mesmos padrões foram revelados por uma análise de correspondência canônica (CCA), que mostrou que os alagamentos foram os principais determinantes da zonação de espécies arbóreas. Aparentemente, Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (Myrtaceae) é a única espécie com distribuição praticamente restrita às MPs estudadas, mas os jaboticabais podem ter uma importância desproporcionalmente maior na preservação de espécies que são pouco abundantes em outras florestas na região. A ocorrência exclusiva de solos distróficos nas áreas de estudo, em uma região onde solos eutróficos predominam, indicam que as terras firmes estudadas representam zonas transicionais entre as zonas úmidas e a matriz florestal. Como estudo pioneiro em zonas úmidas depressionais florestadas no Planalto Sul-Brasileiro, nossos resultados sugerem que ao menos toda a área correspondente às depressões topográficas deve ser protegida, até que estudos complementares proponham zonas de amortecimento apropriadas, com base em critérios biológicos. Jaboticabais são ecossistemas únicos cuja restauração, manejo e preservação são cruciais para manter ambientes espacialmente heterogêneos e, consequentemente, a riqueza específica e as funções e serviços ecossistêmicos. / We investigated the relationships between tree component diversity and structure with environmental variables of four microtopographic positions (MPs) along a wetland-upland gradient in forested depressional wetlands (FDWs) on the South Brazilian Plateau. Species richness and diversity were quite similar in the uplands and lowest in the wetlands, while structural parameters differed little among MPs. An indicator species analysis showed that few species were indicators of the upland sites, suggesting that species distribution was relatively uniform in comparison to the wetlands. The same patterns were revealed by a canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) that showed flooding to be the main factor driving tree species zonation. Apparently, Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (Myrtaceae) is the only tree species with practically restricted distribution to the studied ecosystems, although FDWs and their surrounding uplands can have a disproportionately higher importance in the preservation of species that are under-represented in other regional forests. The occurrence of exclusively dystrophic soils in the study areas, in a region where eutrophic soils predominate, indicates that the studied uplands represent transitional zones between the FDWs and the forest matrix. As a pioneer study in FDWs on the South Brazilian Plateau, our findings suggest that the whole area of the topographic depressions should be protected at least until complementary studies propose proper buffer zones based on biological criteria. FDWs are unique ecosystems whose restoration, management and preservation are crucial to maintain spatial environmental heterogeneity and consequently species richness and ecosystem functions and services.

This thesis deals with the modelling of applying techniques of ordinary least squares method and geographically weighted regression for all administrative divisions of the Czech Republic using ArcGIS software. In general this thesis introduces a GWR method which partially solves the problems associated with the analysis of spatial data. The research compares benefits of using geographically weighted regression with spatial data compared with linear regression in thesis conclusion.

Nós investigamos as relações entre a diversidade e a estrutura do componente arbóreo com as variáveis ambientais, em quatro posições microtopográficas (MPs), ao longo de um gradiente formado entre zonas úmidas depressionais florestadas e terras firmes em jaboticabais (FDWs) no Planalto Sul-Brasileiro. A riqueza específica e a diversidade foram similares nas terras firmes e menores nas zonas úmidas, enquanto que os parâmetros estruturais diferiram pouco entre as MPs. Uma análise de espécies indicadoras mostrou que poucas espécies são indicadoras das terras firmes, revelando que a distribuição das espécies foi relativamente uniforme em comparação às zonas úmidas. Os mesmos padrões foram revelados por uma análise de correspondência canônica (CCA), que mostrou que os alagamentos foram os principais determinantes da zonação de espécies arbóreas. Aparentemente, Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (Myrtaceae) é a única espécie com distribuição praticamente restrita às MPs estudadas, mas os jaboticabais podem ter uma importância desproporcionalmente maior na preservação de espécies que são pouco abundantes em outras florestas na região. A ocorrência exclusiva de solos distróficos nas áreas de estudo, em uma região onde solos eutróficos predominam, indicam que as terras firmes estudadas representam zonas transicionais entre as zonas úmidas e a matriz florestal. Como estudo pioneiro em zonas úmidas depressionais florestadas no Planalto Sul-Brasileiro, nossos resultados sugerem que ao menos toda a área correspondente às depressões topográficas deve ser protegida, até que estudos complementares proponham zonas de amortecimento apropriadas, com base em critérios biológicos. Jaboticabais são ecossistemas únicos cuja restauração, manejo e preservação são cruciais para manter ambientes espacialmente heterogêneos e, consequentemente, a riqueza específica e as funções e serviços ecossistêmicos. / We investigated the relationships between tree component diversity and structure with environmental variables of four microtopographic positions (MPs) along a wetland-upland gradient in forested depressional wetlands (FDWs) on the South Brazilian Plateau. Species richness and diversity were quite similar in the uplands and lowest in the wetlands, while structural parameters differed little among MPs. An indicator species analysis showed that few species were indicators of the upland sites, suggesting that species distribution was relatively uniform in comparison to the wetlands. The same patterns were revealed by a canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) that showed flooding to be the main factor driving tree species zonation. Apparently, Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (Myrtaceae) is the only tree species with practically restricted distribution to the studied ecosystems, although FDWs and their surrounding uplands can have a disproportionately higher importance in the preservation of species that are under-represented in other regional forests. The occurrence of exclusively dystrophic soils in the study areas, in a region where eutrophic soils predominate, indicates that the studied uplands represent transitional zones between the FDWs and the forest matrix. As a pioneer study in FDWs on the South Brazilian Plateau, our findings suggest that the whole area of the topographic depressions should be protected at least until complementary studies propose proper buffer zones based on biological criteria. FDWs are unique ecosystems whose restoration, management and preservation are crucial to maintain spatial environmental heterogeneity and consequently species richness and ecosystem functions and services.

abstract: This work investigates the effects of non-random sampling on our understanding of species distributions and their niches. In its most general form, bias is systematic error that can obscure interpretation of analytical results by skewing samples away from the average condition of the system they represent. Here I use species distribution modelling (SDM), virtual species, and multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) to explore how sampling bias can alter our perception of broad patterns of biodiversity by distorting spatial predictions of habitat, a key characteristic in biogeographic studies. I use three separate case studies to explore: 1) How methods to account for sampling bias in species distribution modeling may alter estimates of species distributions and species-environment relationships, 2) How accounting for sampling bias in fossil data may change our understanding of paleo-distributions and interpretation of niche stability through time (i.e. niche conservation), and 3) How a novel use of MGWR can account for environmental sampling bias to reveal landscape patterns of local niche differences among proximal, but non-overlapping sister taxa. Broadly, my work shows that sampling bias present in commonly used federated global biodiversity observations is more than enough to degrade model performance of spatial predictions and niche characteristics. Measures commonly used to account for this bias can negate much loss, but only in certain conditions, and did not improve the ability to correctly identify explanatory variables or recreate species-environment relationships. Paleo-distributions calibrated on biased fossil records were improved with the use of a novel method to directly estimate the biased sampling distribution, which can be generalized to finer time slices for further paleontological studies. Finally, I show how a novel coupling of SDM and MGWR can illuminate local differences in niche separation that more closely match landscape genotypic variability in the two North American desert tortoise species than does their current taxonomic delineation. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geography 2018

Nós investigamos as relações entre a diversidade e a estrutura do componente arbóreo com as variáveis ambientais, em quatro posições microtopográficas (MPs), ao longo de um gradiente formado entre zonas úmidas depressionais florestadas e terras firmes em jaboticabais (FDWs) no Planalto Sul-Brasileiro. A riqueza específica e a diversidade foram similares nas terras firmes e menores nas zonas úmidas, enquanto que os parâmetros estruturais diferiram pouco entre as MPs. Uma análise de espécies indicadoras mostrou que poucas espécies são indicadoras das terras firmes, revelando que a distribuição das espécies foi relativamente uniforme em comparação às zonas úmidas. Os mesmos padrões foram revelados por uma análise de correspondência canônica (CCA), que mostrou que os alagamentos foram os principais determinantes da zonação de espécies arbóreas. Aparentemente, Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (Myrtaceae) é a única espécie com distribuição praticamente restrita às MPs estudadas, mas os jaboticabais podem ter uma importância desproporcionalmente maior na preservação de espécies que são pouco abundantes em outras florestas na região. A ocorrência exclusiva de solos distróficos nas áreas de estudo, em uma região onde solos eutróficos predominam, indicam que as terras firmes estudadas representam zonas transicionais entre as zonas úmidas e a matriz florestal. Como estudo pioneiro em zonas úmidas depressionais florestadas no Planalto Sul-Brasileiro, nossos resultados sugerem que ao menos toda a área correspondente às depressões topográficas deve ser protegida, até que estudos complementares proponham zonas de amortecimento apropriadas, com base em critérios biológicos. Jaboticabais são ecossistemas únicos cuja restauração, manejo e preservação são cruciais para manter ambientes espacialmente heterogêneos e, consequentemente, a riqueza específica e as funções e serviços ecossistêmicos. / We investigated the relationships between tree component diversity and structure with environmental variables of four microtopographic positions (MPs) along a wetland-upland gradient in forested depressional wetlands (FDWs) on the South Brazilian Plateau. Species richness and diversity were quite similar in the uplands and lowest in the wetlands, while structural parameters differed little among MPs. An indicator species analysis showed that few species were indicators of the upland sites, suggesting that species distribution was relatively uniform in comparison to the wetlands. The same patterns were revealed by a canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) that showed flooding to be the main factor driving tree species zonation. Apparently, Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (Myrtaceae) is the only tree species with practically restricted distribution to the studied ecosystems, although FDWs and their surrounding uplands can have a disproportionately higher importance in the preservation of species that are under-represented in other regional forests. The occurrence of exclusively dystrophic soils in the study areas, in a region where eutrophic soils predominate, indicates that the studied uplands represent transitional zones between the FDWs and the forest matrix. As a pioneer study in FDWs on the South Brazilian Plateau, our findings suggest that the whole area of the topographic depressions should be protected at least until complementary studies propose proper buffer zones based on biological criteria. FDWs are unique ecosystems whose restoration, management and preservation are crucial to maintain spatial environmental heterogeneity and consequently species richness and ecosystem functions and services.

Mapas pedológicos são importantes fontes de informação necessárias à agricultura, mas praticamente inexistentes em escalas adequadas para o Brasil, e seu levantamento pelo método convencional para a demanda brasileira é inviável. Como alternativa ao problema, mapeamento pedológico digital apresenta-se como uma área do conhecimento que envolve as relações das informações de campo, laboratório e pontuais de solos com métodos quantitativos via imagens de satélite e atributos do relevo para inferir atributos e classes. A literatura destaca, portanto, a importância do estudo da posição espacial de pontos amostrais na estimativa de atributos do solo a partir dos valores espectrais de imagens de satélite, aliado a isso, faz-se importante o cruzamento dos atributos do solo estimados e espacializados para chegar a classes de solo. Face ao exposto, o objetiva-se o desenvolvimento de uma técnica via imagem de satélite, dados espectrais e atributos do relevo, integrados por lógica booleana, para determinar mapas pedológicos. O trabalho foi realizado no município de Rio das Pedras, SP e entornos, numa área total de 47.882 ha. Onde, realizou-se processamento de imagens de satélites multitemporais, para obtenção da informação espectral da superfície de solo exposto. Esta informação foi correlacionada com espectro de laboratório de pontos amostrais em subsuperfície (profundidade 80-100 cm) e estimou-se os espectros simulando bandas de satélite para locais desconhecidos. Elaborou-se uma chave de classificação de solos por cruzamento de mapas de atributos via lógica booleana, onde definiu os seguintes atributos a serem mapeados: argila, V% e matéria orgânica (M.O) na profundidade 0-20 cm e argila, CTC, V%, m%, Al, ferro total, matiz, valor e croma na profundidade 80-100 cm. As estimativas de espectros em subsuperfície e dos atributos dos solos nas duas profundidades foram realizadas pela técnica multivariada regressão geograficamente ponderada (GWR), que teve seu desempenho preditivo avaliado pela comparação com desempenho preditivo da técnica de regressão linear múltipla (MRL). Os resultados mostraram correlação entre os espectros das duas profundidades, com R2 de validação acima 0.6. Argila (0-20 e 80-100 cm), matiz, valor e croma foram os atributos do solo que obtiveram as melhores estimativas com R2 acima 0.6. A técnica multivariada GWR obteve-se desempenho superior ao MRL. O mapa pedológico digital comparado aos mapas de solos detalhados de levantamentos convencionais obteve índice kappa de 34.65% e acurácia global de 54,46%. Tal resultado representa um nível regular de classificação. Por outro lado, deve se considerar que se trata de uma região de alta complexidade geológica e compreendendo heterogeneidade de solos. A técnica desenvolvida mostra-se com potencial de evolução no mapeamento digital de solos à medida que forem evoluindo as estimativas de atributos de solos e ajustes nos critérios da chave de classificação. / Soil maps are important sources of information necessary for agriculture, but practically absent in appropriate scales for Brazil, and its mapping by the conventional method for the brazilian demand is impracticable. How an alternative to the problem, digital pedological mapping appears as an area of knowledge that involves the relationship of field information, laboratory and point of soils with quantitative methods by satellite images and relief attributes to predict attributes and classes. The literature highlights therefore the importance of studying the spatial position of sampling points in the estimation of soil attributes from spectral values of satellite images, combined to this, is an important the crossing of the estimated and spatialized soil attributes to get the soil classes. In view of exposed, the objective is the development of a technique satellite image, spectral data and attributes of relief, integrated by boolean logic to determine soil maps. The work was carried out in Rio das Pedras county, SP, and surroundings, in a total area of 47,882 ha. Which was held processing multitemporal satellite images, to obtain spectral information of exposed soil surface. This information was correlated with laboratory spectra of sample points in the subsurface (depth 80-100 cm) and was estimated spectra simulating satellite bands to unknown locations. Produced is a soil classification key for cross attribute maps by boolean logic, which defines the following attributes to be mapped: clay, cation saturation and organic matter (OM) in the 0-20 cm depth and clay, CEC, cation saturation, aluminiu saturation, Al, total iron, hue, value and chroma in depth 80-100 cm. The estimates spectra subsurface and soil attributes in two depths were performed by multivariate technique geographically weighted regression (GWR), which had its predictive performance is evaluated by comparison with predictive performance of multiple linear regression (MRL). The results showed a correlation between the spectra of the two depths, with validation R2 above 0.6. Clay (0-20 and 80-100 cm), hue, value and chroma were the soil attributes obtained the best estimates R2 above 0.6. The GWR multivariate technique yielded better performance than MRL. The digital soil map compared to the detailed soil maps of conventional surveys obtained kappa index of 34.65% and overall accuracy of 54.46%. This result is a regular level of classification. On the other hand, it must be considered that it is a highly complex geological region and comprising heterogeneity of soils. The technique developed shows with potential developments in digital soil mapping as they evolve estimates of soil attributes and adjustments to the classification key criteria.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / This study reflects the vital role the church should play in the social transformation of society. It undoubtedly has the potential to be a strategic organisation for social change. However, in the past it has failed to reach that potential. The hope for the future is that the church will embrace that potential and become active in the process of social transformation. The Church of the Province of Southern Africa (CPSA) has been the researcher's spiritual home for her entire life. During this time, and particularly over the past five years, she has sought to find her place in the church's inflexible, bureaucratic and patriarchal structure. While this study was in the final stages of being written, the CPSA took the historic decision to ordain women to the priesthood. Her personal struggle had been vindicated. However, more importantly, the church's decision attests to that organisation's potential for creative change. Thus this study is dedicated to the members of the CPSA in the Diocese of Cape Town, in the hope that they will embrace the challenge, both as individuals and as a community to become active agents of social change. The field research was conducted during the period March 1989 to March 1990 by the researcher herself, who was a paid employee of the Diocese of Cape Town at the time. Both the promoter and co-promoter of this thesis supervised this research. The results were first published in August 1990 by the Diocese of Cape Town in a report entitled, Voices of the Church: An Anglican perspective on welfare and development in the Diocese of Cape Town. Permission to use the research material in this study has been granted by the Most Reverend Desmond Mpilo Tutu, and is acknowledged with thanks. There are many people who during that period enabled the research to take place because of their willingness, enthusiasm and interest: the Most Reverend Desmond Tutu; Bishop Edward the liaison Bishop; members of Chapter and Diocesan Council; the support committee; the 130 people in the parishes who so willingly shared of themselves and their opinions, and in many instances opened their homes; and the clergy of the diocese, who participated wholeheartedly in the process.

The thesis introduces several methods of real estate price modelling suitable either for prediction of the housing prices or for exploring the relationships between the price and its determinants. We compared the conventional linear regression approach to the tree-based methods of machine learning. The comparison analysis on the dataset of 28 019 apartments in Prague suggests that regression trees (especially the Random forest) yield a higher accuracy in the price prediction. Another objective was to examine the effects of location attributes (especially its accessibility and environmental quality) on the prices of nearby apartments. To address the spatial interactions in the geographical data, we employed three spatially conscious models to achieve more reliable results. The local analysis performed with the geographically weighted regression confirmed the presence of spatial heterogeneity and described the price effects relative to the location. In some areas, an increase of 100 meters in distance from the nearest metro station and the nearest park are associated with a decrease in the apartment prices by 644 CZK/m2 and 916 CZK/m2 , respectively. These findings are especially important for the apartments near the stations of the new metro line, which is currently in construction.