Culex coronator Dyar & Knab e Culex usquatus Dyar são duas espécies irmãs, que fazem parte do Complexo Coronator, composto por mais quatro espécies (Culex usquatissimos Dyar, Culex ousqua Dyar, Culex camposi Dyar, Culex covagarciai Forattini). As fêmeas deste grupo são indistinguíveis por caracteres morfológicos, sendo a identificação possível somente através da distribuição e tamanho das cerdas apicais que ornamentam o gonocoxito da genitália masculina. Cx. coronator, é a espécie com maior distribuição geográfica, ocupando as Américas do Norte, Central e Sul. Já Cx. usquatus só foi registrado nas Américas Central e do Sul, ocorrendo em simpatria no Brasil com Cx. coronator. Apesar da semelhança morfológica das fêmeas das duas espécies, até o momento, somente Cx. coronator foi encontrado naturalmente infectado por diversas arboviroses. Considerando que estudos populacionais são importantes para compreender a evolução e a dinâmica de populações de pontencias vetores, e que a correta identificação de fêmeas é fundamental para estudos de competência vetorial, os objetivos deste trabalho foram: (1) distinguir fêmeas adultas de Cx. coronator de Cx. usquatus (2) obter conhecimento da estrutura populacional de Culex coronator nas regiões Sul e Sudeste (3) examinar a possível existência de outras espécies não descritas e/ou incorretamente identificadas sob o epíteto de Cx. coronator. Para tanto foram utilizadas duas ferramentas: uma morfológica (morfometria de asa), e outra genética (4 loci de microssatélites e sequenciamento do fragmento barcode do gene COI). As análises dos três marcadores mostraram que as populações do Sudeste são geneticamente e morfologicamente diversas, mas não apresentam estrutura populacional, enquanto as populações do Sul são mais homogêneas, e diferentes das do Sudeste. Assim, tanto os microssatélites como a morfometria geométrica, mostraram alguma estruturação populacional em relação às macrorregiões Sul e Sudeste. A análise da morfometria da asa distinguiu as espécies de Cx. coronator e Cx. usquatus, enquanto a análise do COI barcode apresentou uma politomia das duas espécies. Nenhum marcador indicou a existência de um complexo de espécies sob o espíteto Culex coronator. / Culex coronator and Culex usquatus are sibling species belonging to Coronator Group, which comprises five other species (Culex usquatissimos Dyar, Culex ousqua Dyar, Culex camposi Dyar, Culex covagarciai Forattini). Except by Cx. yojae, the females of this group are indistinguishable, being the identification only possible by the analysis of the arrangement and number of appendicles on the apical lobe of the gonocoxite of the male genitalia. Cx. coronator is the most widely distributed species in the complex, occupying North, Central and South America, while Cx. usquatus was recorded only in Central and South America. Therefore, these species are sympatric in Brazil. Despite the morphological similarity of the females of both species, only Cx. coronator has epidemiological importance, being found infected with many arboviruses. Since studies focusing in population structure are important to understand the evolution and dynamics of potencial vectors and that the correct female identification is critical for development of vectorial competence studies, the aims of this study were to: (1) distinguish adult females of Cx. coronator from Cx. usquatus (2) obtain knowledge of the population structure of Culex coronator in Southern and Southeastern areas (3) examine the presence of undescribed and/or incorrectly identified species under Cx. coronator. Thereby, a survey was carried out using morphological (wing geometry) and genetic (4 microsatellite loci and barcode region of the Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene) markers. Results showed genetic and morphological diversity of southeastern populations, with low population structure, while southern populations were more homogenous but different from those of Southeast Brazil. Thus, analysis of microsatellite and wing morphometry showed some populational structure according to South and Southeast macro-regions. Only wing morphometric analysis distinguished Cx. coronator from Cx. usquatus, while the COI barcode analysis showed a polytomy of the two species. No marker indicated Cx. coronator s.s as a group of cryptic species.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In the genus Melipona, a bee Melipona quadrifasciata is one of the best known species and is divided into two subspecies M. q. quadrifasciata and M. q. anthidioides. This study aimed to evaluate the identity of bees mandaçaia the northern coast of Sergipe through morphometric and molecular techniques, and verify the possible geographic barrier represented by the Rio São Francisco. The survey was conducted in a total area of 30ha subdivided into three fragments in the municipalities of Piaçabuçu - AL, Brejo Grande SE, Ilha da Criminosa - SE. Were recorded in 14 colonies mandaçaia Brejo Grande and collected 10 specimens of each colony. No nest was located on the Ilha da Criminosa and Piaçabuçu, which reinforces the hypothesis that the Rio São Francisco could're representing a geographical barrier to the spread of the colonies. The spatial distribution of nests on a scale of 10ha, can be considered as random. Morphometry were used in the wings of the specimens collected and identified three other specimens of M. q. quadrifasciata, M. q. anthidioides and M. mandacaia. The data were subjected to cluster analyzes, principal component analysis, canonical variate analysis, Procrustes analysis of variance test and correlation matrices. Analyses of morphometric data are congruent and identified the M. q. quadrifascita as the identity of the species collected. The analysis of cross-validation and correlation matrices showed no significance, showing great similarity intrapopulation. Total DNA from each sample was subjected to analysis of PCR / RFLP (enzymes: Taq I, Vsp I and Mbo II), identifying a unique pattern of haplotypes for the bee population of the mouth, showing the high genetic similarity. All nests were located in palm trees that would be condemned by the low production due to damage caused by pests, besides the very low supply of other sites for nesting, which sets very high risk of population extinction. / No gênero Melipona, a abelha Melipona quadrifasciata é uma das espécies mais conhecida e está dividida em duas subespécies M. q. quadrifasciata e M. q. anthidioides. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a identidade das abelhas mandaçaia do litoral norte do Estado de Sergipe por meio de técnicas moleculares e morfométrica, e verificar a possível barreira geográfica representada pelo Rio São Francisco. A pesquisa foi realizada em uma área total 30ha subdividida em três fragmentos nos municípios de Piaçabuçu AL, Brejo Grande SE e Ilha da Criminosa SE. Foram registradas 14 colônias de mandaçaia em Brejo Grande e coletados 10 espécimes de cada colônia. Nenhum ninho foi localizado na Ilha da Criminosa e em Piaçabuçu, o que reforça a hipótese de que o Rio São Francisco poderia está representando uma barreira geográfica para a dispersão das colônias. A distribuição espacial de ninhos em uma escala de 10ha, pode ser considerada como aleatória. Na morfometria foram utilizadas as asas dos espécimes coletados e de 3 outras amostras identificadas de M. q. quadrifasciata, M. q. anthidioides e M. mandacaia. Os dados foram submetidos a Análises de Agrupamento, Análise de Componentes Principais, Análise de Variáveis Canônicas, Análise de Variância de Procrustes e teste de correlação de matrizes. As análises dos dados morfométricos são congruentes e apontaram a M. q. quadrifascita como a identidade da espécie coletada. A análise de validação cruzada e a correlação de matrizes não apresentou significância, denotando grande similaridade intrapopulacional. O DNA total de cada amostra foi submetido a análise de PCR/RFLP (enzimas: Taq I, Vsp I e Mbo II), identificando um único padrão de haplótipos para a população de abelhas da foz, evidenciando a grande similaridade genética. É importante ressaltar que todos os ninhos estavam localizados em coqueiros que seriam condenados pela baixa produção ocasionada pelos danos decorrente de pragas, além da baixíssima oferta de outros locais para nidificação, o que configura altíssimo risco de extinção populacional.

This thesis deals with the analysis of 3D morphological changes and variability in the shape and form of facial expression during five specifically defined facial expressions (raising eyebrows, close both eyes, lips pursing, inflating both cheeks, smile). Changes in facial expression were evaluated in relation to sexual dimorphism and age category of probands using the methods of geometric morphometrics (Dense Correspondence Analysis, Paired Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, Shell-to-Shell Deviation) in program Morphome3cs and RapidForm. The analysis consisted of evaluating the surface of soft tissue changes that occur due to the contraction of facial muscles. Materials used for the analysis are 3D surface facial models of adult healthy people of the Czech nationality (63 women, 58 men) in the age interval 20-60 years. We considered methodology based on Paired Analysis to be more accurate, when we worked only with differences between the neutral expression and facial expression. By choosing a Paired Analysis, we prevented the morphological features of the face from being reflected into the results. Morphological features are a manifestation of sexual dimorphism or age factor as such, but they are not themselves the essence of facial expression. In this way, we analyzed the shape of the face after...

This study is based on evaluative longitudinal data of facial development in a group of children from 6 to 12 years. The research used three-dimensional models of the faces of 18 girls and 15 boys that were scanned at yearly intervals. These models were used to follow development of the face and its particular areas including analysis of variability (PCA). Developmental changes were observed for each gender separately as well as for the development of sexual dimorphism. Results were visualized by using superimposed color maps of average faces of a particular age group and maps depicting the statistically significant differences in individual areas. The presented data exhibited growth in the face of both genders, while slightly bigger changes in the form of the face were observed in the boys' samples. For girls and boys the most intensive growth was found in the direction of the width and height of the entire face and the nose, especially in the direction of length. These changes took place throughout the whole studied period of growth, yet more intensive growth was evident for girls beginning at age 10 years and for boys from 11 years onward. Shape changes also occurred with age for both genders: the face gradually narrowed, the cheeks flattened and a more retruded position of the forehead...

The diploma thesis deals with the differences in the development of the palate in girls and boys within five age groups in the age range of 7 to 19 years, using methods of geometric morphometry. Furthermore, the work deals with the monitoring of sexual dimorphism in the development of the palate. Understanding palate growth, knowledge of differences in its development and changes related to sexual dimorphism are very useful, as the results of this study will serve as a comparative standard for palate defects in the Czech population, but also for appropriate planning of orthodontic procedures. The material consists of 228 gypsum castings of palate without any pathologies, 112 of which belonged to boys and 116 girls of the Czech population. Thus, transverse data are used in our study. The subjects were divided into five age groups 7, 10, 12, 15 and 19 with respect to gender. Age changes of the entire palate surface were modeled using geometric morphometry methods (Coherent point drift - Dense correspondence analysis, Per vertex T- test and Principal component analysis). To visualize the results, superprojection color maps, maps of significance and superprojection. The results show the greatest variability in the form of palate in girls of groups 10 and 12 years and in boys of groups 10 years, and...

This thesis is based on longitudinal monitoring of developmental changes of the oronasal region in a group of children from 7 to 17 years. Growth and shape changes, variability and sex dimorphism were monitored using 492 3D facial models of 40 boys and 47 girls. These models were obtained by yearly scanning children aged 7 to 12 years and 12 to 17 years. The Vectra 3D optical scanner was used to obtain the models and data were evaluated using classical and geometric morphometry methods (T-test, DCA, Per vertex T-test and Principal component analysis). The results of the analyses were visualized using superprojection color maps of average faces and significance maps that show statistically significant regions of oronasal region changes. During the period under review, the growth of the oronasal region is evident in both girls and boys. The most intense growth occurred in the area of the nasal spine in both sexes, so there was a lengthening of the nose. Overall, the oronasal region extended and expanded to acquire a more convex shape. Growth intensity increased in girls from 10 years and in boys from 11 years. Sexual dimorphism was pronounced up to 11 years, between 12 and 13 the differences were not as pronounced as in the previous age categories, and these changes began to increase again from 14...

L’environnement a un effet considérable sur les végétaux par différents facteurs abiotiques (climat, sol, urbanisation) ou biotiques (pollinisateurs, herbivores). Les fortes pressions de sélection exercées par ces facteurs sur certains traits phénotypiques aboutissent souvent à des adaptations chez les plantes. Les pollinisateurs exercent une pression de sélection sur les traits floraux qui résultent en des adaptations convergentes que l’on appelle syndromes de pollinisation. L’étude de ses syndromes, mais aussi de la performance de pollinisation de chaque visiteur, permet de mieux comprendre l’intensité de cette pression de sélection ainsi que l’évolution florale. Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes appuyés sur l’utilisation de deux modèles d’études végétaux : la famille des Gesneriaceae des Antilles et l’Impatiente du Cap. Ces deux modèles, de par leurs stratégies de pollinisation et leurs variations florales, sont appropriés pour étudier l’adaptation florale aux pollinisateurs. Nous avons ainsi pu tester 1) si la forme florale est expliquée par la forme du bec des colibris pollinisateurs chez les Gesneriaceae antillaises ; 2) si l’espèce Rhytidophyllum bicolor Urb. est généraliste en pollinisation et si ses différents types fonctionnels de pollinisateurs ont une performance de pollinisation similaire ; 3) si l’urbanisation affecte la forme florale de l’espèce Impatiens capensis Meerb., à travers des changements dans les communautés de pollinisateurs. Pour tester ces hypothèses, des approches de morphométries géométriques ont été utilisées (hypothèses 1 et 3), ainsi que des observations de pollinisation in situ et la mesure du taux de visite (hypothèses 2 et 3). La mesure de performance de pollinisation a été réalisé via le comptage des grains de pollen déposés sur le stigmate après chaque visite, et à la mesure du taux de visite. Enfin, des tests statistiques (ANOVA, régressions linéaires) et analyses multivariées (analyses de redondance, analyse en composantes principales) ont été réalisées sur les données obtenues pour chaque étude. Les résultats de la première étude montrent une corrélation positive entre la longueur de la corolle de fleurs spécialistes aux colibris et la longueur du bec des pollinisateurs. Bien que moins significatifs, les résultats des comparaisons de formes globales, obtenues par application de morphométrie géométrique, indiquent que cette approche est prometteuse pour ce genre d’analyse. Nous avons démontré que la forme florale des fleurs généralistes est impactée par les colibris pollinisateurs, bien que d’une manière différente des spécialistes. 4 Pour l’hypothèse 2, la prédiction de stratégie de pollinisation de l’espèce Rhytidophyllum bicolor a été validée, puisque cette plante est pollinisée par des colibris, chauves-souris et abeilles. Cependant, face au déclin des populations de colibris après le passage de l’ouragan Matthew sur Haïti, seules les performances de pollinisation des abeilles et des chauves-souris ont pu être mesurées. Les résultats montrent que les chauves-souris sont des pollinisateurs efficaces et conséquents, bien que la performance des abeilles ne soit pas négligeable. Il a ainsi pu être mis de l’avant que la stratégie de pollinisation généraliste semble être un avantage pour les plantes présentes dans les zones sujettes aux fluctuations de populations de pollinisateurs, comme cela peut souvent être le cas sur les îles à la suite du passage d’un ouragan. La troisième étude montre que l’urbanisation n’a pas d’effet direct sur la forme florale de l’Impatiente du Cap, mais qu’elle a des effets indirects significatifs via les changements causés sur les communautés de pollinisateurs. Sur les six sites échantillonnées les pollinisateurs principaux, Bombus sp. Latreille et Apis mellifera Linnaeus, sont les mêmes. Cependant les taux de diversité obtenus montrent une variation entre les sites, due à la présence de certaines espèces de pollinisateurs occasionnels dans certains sites et pas dans d’autres. Ces taux ne sont pas plus faibles dans les sites les plus urbains. Les résultats indiquent que certaines formes florales sont associées à des espèces de pollinisateurs particulières. Les différentes espèces de pollinisateurs ayant une pression de sélection différente sur les traits floraux, l’urbanisation a ainsi un impact indirect sur la forme florale chez l’espèce étudiée. À travers trois études différentes, cette thèse a mis en avant l’impact que l’environnement peut avoir sur les traits floraux, de manière indirecte, via les pollinisateurs. Alors que la deuxième et troisième étude ont montré la pression exercée par les pollinisateurs sur les traits floraux dans différents cas de perturbations de l’habitat, la première étude a permis de mieux comprendre l’adaptation remarquable des fleurs à leurs pollinisateurs, même pour des espèces généralistes en pollinisation. / The environment has a considerable effect on plants through various abiotic (climate, soil, urbanization) or biotic (pollinators, herbivores) factors. The strong selection pressures exerted by these factors on phenotypic traits often results in adaptations. Pollinators exert selection pressure on floral traits that result in converging adaptations called pollination syndromes. The study of syndromes, as well as the pollination performance of each floral visitor, allows us to better understand the intensity of a/biotic selection pressure and floral evolution. In this thesis, we relied on two plant models: the Gesneriaceae family in the Antilles, and the common Jewelweed, Impatiens capensis Meerb. Due to their pollination strategies and their floral variation, both of these models are suitable for studying floral adaptation to biotic factors, specifically, their pollinators. We were thus able to test the following hypotheses: 1) whether the floral form is explained by the beak shape of pollinating hummingbirds in West Indies Gesnericeae; 2) whether the Gesnericeae Rhytidophyllum bicolor Urb. has a generalist strategy for pollination and whether their different functional types of pollinators have similar pollination performances; 3) whether urbanization affects the floral form of the common Jewelweed, through changes in pollinator communities. To test these hypotheses, geometric morphometric approaches were used (hypotheses 1 and 3), as well as in situ pollination observations, and estimation of the visitation rate (hypotheses 2 and 3). Pollination performance was measured by counting pollen grains deposited on the stigma after each visit, and by measuring the visitation rate. Finally, statistical tests (ANOVA, linear regressions) and multivariate analyses (redundancy analysis, principal component analysis) were carried out on the data obtained to test each hypothesis. The first results show a positive correlation between the length of the corolla of flowers specialized for hummingbirds and the beak length of pollinators. Although less significant, our results of the comparisons of global shapes, obtained by applying geometric morphometry, indicate that this approach is promising for this kind of analysis. We show that the floral form of generalist flowers is impacted by pollinating hummingbirds, albeit in a different way from specialists. For the second hypothesis, our prediction that R. bicolor has a generalist pollination strategy was validated, since this plant is pollinated by hummingbirds, bats and bees. However, faced with the decline in hummingbird populations after Hurricane Matthew hit Haiti in 2016, only the pollination performance of bees and bats could be measured. Our results show that bats are efficient and consistent pollinators of R. bicolor, although the performance of bees is not negligible. Thus, it has been possible to put forward that the generalist pollination strategy seems to be an advantage for plants present in areas subject to fluctuations in their pollinator populations, as can often be the case on hurricane-prone islands. The third study shows that urbanization does not have a direct effect on the flower form of common Jewelweed, but that urbanization does have significant indirect effects through changes caused on pollinator communities. At the six sites sampled, the main pollinators, Bombus sp. Latreille and Apis mellifera Linnaeus, are the same. However, diversity rates show variation between sites, due to the presence of certain species of occasional pollinators in some sites and not in others. These rates are not lower in the most urban sites. Our results indicate that certain floral forms are associated with particular pollinator species. Since different pollinator species have different selection pressures on floral traits, urbanization has an indirect impact on the floral form in the species studied. Through three different studies, this thesis highlighted the impact that the environment can have on floral traits, indirectly, via pollinators. While the second and third studies showed the pressure exerted by pollinators on floral traits in different cases of habitat disturbance, the first study helped to better highlight the remarkable adaptation of flowers to their pollinators, even for generalist species in pollination.

Introdução. A identificação dos flebotomíneos baseia-se principalmente na morfologia do adulto, o que pode ser problemático quando as espécies são morfologicamente muito semelhantes. Psychodopygus é um gênero de flebotomíneos de grande interesse em saúde pública devido ao papel de algumas espécies na veiculação de Leishmania spp. no Brasil. No entanto, este gênero inclui espécies com fêmeas morfologicamente indistinguíveis que pertencem à Série Chagasi, sendo elas: P. chagasi, P. complexus, P. squamiventris maripaensis, P. squamiventris squamiventris e P. wellcomei. Objetivos. Investigar a possibilidade de distinguir essas espécies por meio de análises morfométrica e molecular, além de produzir uma distribuição geográfica atualizada para o grupo analisando a probabilidade de ocorrência das espécies através da análise de modelagem de nicho ecológico. Material e Métodos. Foi realizada a análise discriminante na morfometria geométrica (cabeça e asa) e linear, morfologia (usando microscopia óptica e eletrônica de varredura) e a análise do citocromo c oxidase subunidade 1 (COI), avaliando-se um total de 752 espécimes (460 fêmeas e 292 machos) dos seguintes estados Amapá, Amazonas, Ceará, Mato Grosso, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima e Tocantins. Mapas de distribuição foram produzidos através de dados obtidos do material analisado e de revisão bibliográfica. Resultados. A análise discriminante usando caracteres morfométricos lineares mostrou-se capaz de diferenciar todas as espécies, exceto P. complexus, que apresentou 2,2% de erro de identificação. A morfometria geométrica das asas foi incapaz de separar completamente as espécies através da conformação, mas o tamanho do centróide dos espécimes fêmeas falhou apenas em distinguir P. complexus de P. s. maripaensis. Por outro lado, a morfometria geométrica das cabeças foi capaz de distinguir todas as espécies com grande eficiência ao usar tanto a forma como o tamanho do centróide. A análise morfológica revelou que a coloração torácica, principalmente do pronoto e do pós-noto, pode ser usada para separar as cinco espécies em três grupos: P. chagasi, P. wellcomei / P. complexus e P. s. mariapaensis / P. s. squamiventris. Os resultados da análise de DNA Barcoding, mostraram um agrupamento semelhante ao observado na morfologia; embora os espécimes de P. wellcomei do estado do Ceará mostrem uma grande distância genética da população do estado do Pará, evidenciando que essa espécie possa representar um complexo. Quanto à microscopia eletrônica de varredura, foram avaliadas detalhadamente as estruturas das antenas, tórax e genitália masculina. Salientamos que no anepímero (tórax) foi observada uma escama tipo \"raquete\" modificada apenas em Psychodopygus s. squamiventris. A revisão da distribuição geográfica mostrou que as espécies possuem uma distribuição cis-andina, ocorrendo principalmente no bioma Amazônico. A nítida separação de algumas espécies pelo rio Amazonas, sugere que o surgimento do grupo ocorreu no período que se estende da orogênese dos Andes até a formação deste rio. Conclusões. O estudo possibilitou diferenciar completamente as fêmeas das cinco espécies da Série Chagasi utilizando o conjunto de dados obtidos por morfometria linear e geométrica e análises morfológicas e também apresentar novos caracteres morfológicos e padrões distribucionais que facilitarão a identificação de machos e fêmeas dessas espécies. / Introduction. The identification of sand flies is mainly based on adult morphology, which can be problematic when species are morphologically very similar. Psychodopygus is one of the sand fly genera of great interest in public health, due to the role of some species in the transmission of Leishmania spp. in Brazil. However, this genus includes species with morphologically indistinguishable females that belong to the Chagasi series, which includes: P. chagasi, P. complexus, P. squamiventris maripaensis, P. squamiventris squamiventris and P. wellcomei. Objectives. To investigate the possibility of distinguishing among these species by means of morphometric and molecular analyses in addition to producing an updated geographical distribution for the group, analyzing the probability of the occurrence of the species by the analysis of ecological niche modeling. Material and methods. The analyses of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI), geometrical (head and wing) and of linear morphometry and morphology (using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy) were carried out using a total of 752 specimens (460 females and 292 males) from the following states: Amapá, Amazonas, Ceará, Mato Grosso, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima e Tocantins. Distribution maps were produced on the basis of data obtained from the material analyzed and a bibliographical review. Results. The discriminant analysis using linear morphometric characters was able to differentiate among all the species, except for P. complexus, which presented a 2.2% error of identification. The geometric morphometry of the wings was unable to completely separate the species by means of the shape analyses, but the centroid size of the female specimens only failed to distinguish P. complexus from P. s. maripaensis. Otherwise, the geometric morphometry of the heads was sufficient to distinguish all the species with great efficiency, when using both the head-shape and the centroid size. The morphological analysis revealed that the thoracic coloration, mainly of the pronotum and the post-notum, can be used to separate the five species into three groups: P. chagasi, P. wellcomei / P. complexus, P. s. mariapaensis / P. s. squamiventris. The results of the Barcoding DNA analyses showed a cluster similar to that observed in the morphology; however, P. wellcomei specimens from the Ceará population showed a great genetic distance from the population of Pará, evidencing that this species may represent a complex. As for the scanning electron microscopy, the structures of the antennae, thorax and male genitalia were evaluated in detail. In the anepimerum (thorax) a modified \"racket\"-type scale was observed only in Psychodopygus s. squamiventris. The review of the geographical distribution showed that the species have a cis-Andean distribution, occurring mainly in the Amazonian biome. The separation of some species from the others by the Amazon river suggests that the appearance of the Chagasi series occurred in the period from the orogenesis of the Andes to the formation of this river. Conclusions. The results clearly differentiate the females of the five species of the Chagasi series using the data set of linear and geometric morphometry and morphological analyses, providing new morphological and distributional data that will facilitate the identification of the males and females of this group.

<p>Predmet ovog istraživanja su vrste iz<em>&nbsp; Merodon&nbsp; aureus,&nbsp; M.&nbsp; nanus&nbsp; i&nbsp; M. ruficornis&nbsp; </em>grupe i&nbsp;<em> M.&nbsp; avidus&nbsp; </em>kompleksa sa područja Palearktika. Usled izuzetne morfolo&scaron;ke sličnosti pomenutih vrsta, kori&scaron;ćene su tri različite metode u cilju utvrđivanja&nbsp; prisustva skrivenih taksona i definisanja granica vrsta. Komparativnom geometerijsko-morfometrijskom analizom su obuhvaćene vrste iz&nbsp;<em> M.&nbsp; aureus&nbsp; i&nbsp; M.&nbsp;</em> <em>nanus&nbsp; </em>grupe i&nbsp;<em> M.&nbsp; avidus</em>&nbsp; kompleksa. Interspecijska varijabilnost&nbsp;<em> M.&nbsp; aureus</em>&nbsp; grupe i&nbsp;<em> M.&nbsp; avidus&nbsp;</em> kompleksa je analizirana sa dva geometrijsko-morfometrijska pristupa: analiza oblika krila -&nbsp; zasnovana na specifičnim tačkama (<em>landmarks</em>) i analiza oblika genitalnog aparata mužjaka&nbsp; -&nbsp; zasnovana na pomoćnim tačkama (<em>semilandmarks</em>).<br />Sredinske ni&scaron;e su kvantifikovane i poređene &ldquo;<em>Point base</em>&rdquo; metodom i njome su obuhvaćene sve istraživane vrste. Uslovljenost razlika u obliku krila i surstila analiziranih vrsta geografskom distribucijom i klimatskim faktorima je testirana upotrebom Mantel testa. Dobijeni rezultati analize oblika krila i genitalnog aparata mužjaka ukazuju na veliki potencijal geometrijske morfometrije u detekovanju morfolo&scaron;ke&nbsp; varijabilnosti, odnosno kriptičnih vrsta kod sirfida. Na osnovu oblika krila i genitalnog aparata mužjaka, unutar svih istraţivanih grupa vrsta prepoznato je 45 nezavisnih evolucionih jedinica (<em>M.</em>&nbsp;<em>aureus</em>&nbsp;grupa - 36;&nbsp; <em>M.</em> <em>nanus</em>&nbsp;grupa - 5,&nbsp; <em>M. avidus&nbsp;</em> kompleks&nbsp; -&nbsp; 4). Sve kriptične vrste iz 12 analiziranih kompleksa vrsta su uspe&scaron;no razdvojene, sa visokim procentom korektne klasifikacije jedinki. Rezultati ukazuju na veću moć diskriminacije oblika genitalnog aparata mužjaka u odnosu na krila. Razlike u obliku krila se odnose prvenstveno na promene u apikalnom delu<br />krila &scaron;to utiče na promene u dužini i &scaron;irini ovog dela, dok su razlike u obliku genitalnog aparata mužjaka najvećim delom koncentrisane u posteriornom delu posteriornog lobusa surstila, delu genitalnog aparata mužjaka koja igra ključnu ulogu u pridržavanju ženki tokom kopulacije. Razlike u obliku krila nisu posledica geografske udaljenosti, kao ni razlika u ekolo&scaron;kim ni&scaron;ama vrsta. Uticaj abiotičkih parametara na razlike u obliku genitalnog aparata mužjaka nije zabeležen ni kod jedne od analiziranih vrsta, dok je uticaj geografske distribucije na razlike u obliku surstila zabeležen samo u jednom slučaju, kod&nbsp; <em>M. luteomaculatus</em>&nbsp;kompleksa vrsta. Ovi rezultati ukazuju da je<br />izolacija putem distance imala glavnu&nbsp; ulogu u diverzifikaciji oblika genitalnog aparata mužjaka kod vrsta ovog kompleksa.</p><p>Rezultati su pokazali da se klimatski profili svih analiziranih parova vrsta razlikuju u makar jednoj sredinskoj ni&scaron;i (PC osi), osim para vrsta&nbsp; <em>M. rojoi - M. puniceus&nbsp;</em> i&nbsp; <em>M.&nbsp; loewi&nbsp; -&nbsp; M. ovaloides</em>. Faktori koji najvi&scaron;e doprinose&nbsp;divergenciji klimatskih profila analiziranih vrsta predstavljaju esktreme tj. limitirajuće faktore poput niskih vrednosti padavina i temperature i fluktuacija temperaure tokom godine. Za razliku od &scaron;iroko rasprostranjenih vrsta, endemske vrste imaju uzak opseg nadmorskih visina na kojima se javljaju i uglavnom su vezane za planinska stani&scaron;ta. Takođe, imaju niske vrednosti standardne devijacije za većinu izdvojenih PC osa &scaron;to ukazuje na njihovu striktnu klimatsku adaptibilnost. Prema rezultatima analize distribucije i specijskog diverziteta, Balkansko poluostrvo odlikuje najveći&nbsp;divezitet analiziranih vrsta. On predstavlja centar biodiverziteta za&nbsp;<em>M. aureus</em> grupu, a zajedno sa severnim delom Apeninskog poluostrva za <em>M. ruficornis</em> grupu, dok je najveći diverzitet vrsta <em>M. nanus</em>&nbsp;grupe zabeležen na jugozapadu i severoistoku Anadolije. Analize klimatskih profila i specijskog diverziteta zajedno sa rezultatima geometrijske morfometrije ukazuju da je geolo&scaron;ka istorija, tj. kontrakcije areala tokom glacijacija i interglacijacija, značajno uticala na diverzifikaciju istraživanih grupa u refugijumima zapadnog Palearktika.</p> / <p>The objects of this study are species from <em>Merodon aureus</em>, <em>M. nanus</em>&nbsp;and <em>M.&nbsp; ruficornis</em> groups, and <em>M. avidus</em> complex in Palaearctic. These species are characterised by great morphological&nbsp; similarity, and three different approaches were used to detect cryptic species and establish species boundaries. Species from <em>M. aureus</em>&nbsp;and <em>M.&nbsp; nanus</em>&nbsp;groups, and <em>M. avidus</em> complex were analysed using geometric morphometry. Interspecific variability of <em>M. aureus</em> group and <em>M. avidus</em> complex were studied using two approaches: landmark based wing shape analysis and semilandmark analysis of male genitalia.&nbsp; Ecological niche analysis were conducted for all analyzed species.&nbsp; Correlation between Squared Mahalanobis&nbsp; distances of both wing and surstylus, and geographic and environmental distances were addressed using&nbsp; the two tailed Mantel test. Geometric morphometric results indicate that wing and especially surstylus shape, have meaningful interspecific discriminatory power. Based&nbsp; on these characters 45 evolutionary independent units are recognized (<em>M. aureus</em>&nbsp;group - 36; <em>M. nanus</em>&nbsp;group - 5, <em>M. avidus</em> complex - 4). All cryptic species from 12 analysed species complexes were successfully distinguished with high overall&nbsp; classification success. Results showed that geometric morphometry of surstylus had a higher classification rate than wing geometric morphometry. The main wing shape differences are connected with apical part of the wing which influences his length and width. The main differences in surstylus shape are connected to the posterior margin of the posterior part of the surstylus lobe, involved in gripping the female during copulation. Mantel tests revealed that geographic and environmental distances exhibited no association with wing and&nbsp; surstylus shape distance among investigated species, except in <em>M. luteomaculatus</em>&nbsp; complex. In this complex, Mantel test results suggested that isolation by distance had a major role in the diversification of male genitalia.</p><p>Ecological niche analysis contributed to the species delimitation. These results demonstrated that among all related species, with the exception of species pairs <em>M. rojoi - M. puniceus</em> and <em>M. loewi - M. ovaloides</em>, overall or partial divergence in environmental&nbsp; space is present. Distribution patterns of all analyzed species are mainly affected by the limiting effects such as low temperature and precipitation values,&nbsp; as well as the temperature fluctuation during the year.</p><p>Endemics and species with a narrow range had smaller altitudinal ranges and were mainly connected with mountainous areas. Additionally, low standard deviation values for endemic species reflect their narrow geographic distribution and very strict climatic adaptations, whereas large values for widely distributed species reflect their broad adaptability.</p><p>According to the results of distribution and species diversity analysis, the Balkan Peninsula is characterized with highest diversity. It is a centre of biodiversity for&nbsp;<em>M. aureus</em> group, together with the northern part of the Apennine peninsula for <em>M. ruficorn</em>&nbsp;is group, while the largest species diversity of <em>M. nanus</em>&nbsp;group is recorded in the southwest and northeast Anadolia.</p><p>Distribution and species diversity analyses, together with&nbsp; the results of geometric morphometry indicate that geological history, i.e. range contraction during glaciations and interglaciations had a significant impact on the diversification of the studied groups in refuges in the Western Palaearctic.</p>

- 1 - Abstract The intent of this thesis is to evaluate the differences in facial morphology of children between 3 and 15 years of age based on 3D facial models and cross-sectional data. Due to improper use of cross-sectional data for studying growth, the next part of the thesis is focused on the comparison of cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches in research. The longitudinal observation of facial developmental changes can be considered as actual growth. The cross-sectional database contains 839 3D facial models (397 boys, 442 girls). Three previously published longitudinal databases were used for comparison. Their age intervals were as follows: 3 to 6 years (12 boys, 14 girls), 6 to 12 years (15 boys, 18 girls), 12 to 15 years (23 boys, 22 girls). Geometric morphometric methods were used to analyse facial models (Coherent Point Drift - Dense Correspondance Analysis, Per Vertex T-Test and Principal Component Analysis). The results were visualized using superimposition colour maps, shell distance significance maps and their interlacing. When annual consecutive age intervals were used for cross-sectional data, we could not observe the fluency of differences in facial morphology between age categories, which we can observe during actual growth. When wider age intervals were used for cross-sectional...