In this thesis, some aspects concerning building embankments founded on sulphide clay are studied, with special reference to ground improvement by preloading in combination with prefabricated vertical drains (PVD’s). The main purpose of the research was to increase empirical knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of sulphide clays subjected to embankment loadings and of the interaction between vertical drains and sulphide clays. Important aspects related to ground improvement with PVD’s in more general terms are also treated, in particular how various uncertainties regarding the properties of the clay and the clay-drain interaction imposed in the design phase can be addressed. The benefits of using theobservational method for handling these uncertainties are discussed, and a description of how the method was used in an embankment project is presented. The results from the research are presented in one conference paper and two papers submitted to peer-reviewed international journals, which are appended. The design of PVD’s involves describing the consolidation characteristics of the clay and the interaction between the drains and the clay. Primarily, the rate of consolidation is determined by the hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of the clay in the horizontal direction. Hence, accurate determination of this material property is of paramount importance in making reliable design predictions. As conventional laboratory tests for assessing the consolidation characteristics of a clay only provide information about its properties in the vertical direction, one is often left to make assumptions about the horizontal properties based on empirical correlations. Reliable empirical knowledge of these correlations for a certain clay is there forevital. A large number of CRS tests were performed on horizontal and vertical samples ofsulphide clay in order to investigate the correlation between the horizontal and verticalhydraulic conductivity and coefficient of consolidation. The results show that there is very small anisotropy in these parameters and that the scatters in the results are large. For designpurposes, sulphide clays should therefore be assumed to be isotropic in this respect. In orde rto handle the variation in properties, several parallel tests should be made and partial factors of safety should be introduced in the design. Introducing partial factors of safety in the design of PVD’s is one of the main topics suggested for further research. Regarding the clay-drain interaction, a study of the disturbance effects (smear effects) during the installation of drains in sulphide clays was performed. Back-calculations of measurements of pore pressure dissipation were made via a parameter study. It was shown that smear affects the consolidation rate to some extent but that the natural (undisturbed) hydraulic conductivity is more significant. The undrained shear strength su of a clay is dependent on the preconsolidation pressure σ 'p . As the clay consolidates under a loading, the effective stress increases, possibly to magnitudes surpassing the initial preconsolidation pressure and thereby leading to increased undrainedshear strength of the clay. The relation between su and σ 'p, i.e. the ratio su /σ 'p for asulphide clay, was investigated based on results from a large number of in situ tests andlaboratory tests. There were large scatters in the measurements, but su /σ 'p =0.25 is suggested as being relevant in the direct shear zone for design purposes in sulphide clays. / <p>QC 20101101</p>

According to Swedish guidelines for high speed railways on embankment, the total settlement is limited to 20 mm over a track length of 10 m during the construction service life. The main objective of this thesis was to investigate the deformation in the subgrade (unbound layer) in a slab track, since there are very few studies related to high speed railways on high earth structure, discussing particularly the unbound layer. This thesis examined the unbound layer consisting of granular material by using the discrete element method (DEM) software PFC. There was a focus on the material compaction and deformations due to traffic loading. DEM has the benefit to be able to model deformation with due consideration of processes at microscale level. Two different particle shapes were tested: balls and clumps. The results showed that the settlements were small, possibly associated to the well compacted material and the simplifications in the model, such as the shape of the particles, absence of particle breakage and the applied traffic load. The clump simulations resulted in less settlements and permanent strains compared to the ball simulations. The higher the embankment the more settlements but less strains were produced for all the three simulations. One interesting parameter to study for the balls simulation was the friction between the particles. Increased friction contributed to less settlement. The maximum height of the embankment was limited to around 3,2 m due to time restraints. Simulations for higher embankments are needed to be performed in order to better understand the effect of the embankment height on settlements.

The Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) test is currently the most widely used method for determination of consolidation parameters in Sweden. These parameters are used to calculate the probable settlements and behavior of soils. With the Swedish standard strain rate, the duration of a single the test is about 24h, but a higher strain rate would allow for more tests to be performed in the same amount of time. For all clays in Sweden, the Swedish standard for the CRS test suggests a fixed rate of strain that is independent of soil properties, while the North American standard proposes a strain rate that generates a pore pressure ratio of 3-15%. Soil properties such as water content, liquid limit, sensitivity and shear strength vary greatly between different regions of Sweden. It would be beneficial if these properties could be used to find the ideal strain rate for the CRS test. Performing the tests at a higher strain rate, and thus performing more tests within a shorter amount of time, would save both time and money. In this report, 24 CRS tests are performed on three different clays with distinctive properties. Each clay is tested with three different strain rates: the Swedish standard rate of 0.680%/h, a higher rate of 3.00%/h and a lower rate of 0.154%/h. The results are evaluated according to both standards, and are compared and analyzed to determine whether there is any indication that the strain rate can be selected based on the soil properties. The results indicate that the selection of the strain rate is dependent on the soil properties. In addition, the majority of the tests can be conducted with higher strain rates than what is required by the Swedish standard and still manage to lie within the 3-15% limit of the pore pressure ratio, which is acceptable for the North American standard. However, the preconsolidation pressure does rise with increased strain rates, which can generate problems and erroneous results when calculating the settlements. A more extensive testing program with CRS tests and full-scale field tests must be carried out before any recommendation of a higher strain rate can be made.

<p> The central theme of the study is to identify strength-stiffness correlations for chemically treated subgrade soils in Indiana. This was done by conducting Unconfined Compression (UC) tests and resilient modulus tests for soils collected at three different sites, namely : US 31, SR 37 and I-65. At each site, soil samples were obtained from 11 locations at 30 ft spacing. The soils were treated in the laboratory with cement, using the same proportions used for construction, and cured for 7 and 28 days before testing. Results from the UC tests were compared with the resilient modulus results that were available. No direct correlation was found between resilient modulus and UCS parameters for the soils investigated in this study. A brief statistical analysis of the results was conducted, and a simple linear regression model involving the soil characteristics (plasticity index, optimum moisture content and maximum dry density) along with UCS and resilient modulus parameters was proposed.  </p>

Building a sustainable structure in soil or rock that satisfies all predefined technical requirements implies choosing a rational and effective construction method. An important aspect is how the performance of the structure is verified. For cases when the geotechnical behaviour is hard to predict, the existing design code for geotechnical structures, Eurocode 7, suggests the so-called “observational method” to verify that the performance is acceptable. The basic principle of the method is to accept predefined changes in the design during construction, in order to accommodate the actual ground conditions, if the current design is found unsuitable. Even though this in theory should ensure an effective design solution, formal application of the observational method is rare. It is therefore not clear which prerequisites and circumstances that must be present for the observational method to be applicable and be the more suitable method. This licentiate thesis gives a critical review of the observational method, based on, and therefore limited by, the outcome of the performed case studies. The aim is to identify and highlight the crucial aspects that make the observational method difficult to apply, thereby providing a basis for research towards a more applicable definition of the method. The main topics of discussion are (1) the apparent contradiction between the preference for advanced probabilistic calculation methods to solve complex design problems and sound, qualitative engineering judgement, (2) the limitations of measurement data in assessing the safety of a structure, (3) the fact that currently, no safety margin is required for the completed structure when the observational method is applied, and (4) the rigidity of the current definition of the observational method and the implications of deviations from its principles. Based on the review, it is argued that the observational method can be improved by linking it to a probabilistic framework. To be applicable, the method should be supported by guidelines that explain and exemplify how to make the best use of it. The engineering judgement is however not lost; no matter how elaborate probabilistic methods are used, sound judgement is still needed to define the problem correctly. How to define such a probabilistic framework is an urgent topic for future research, because this also addresses the concerns regarding safety that is raised in the other topics of discussion. / För att i berg eller jord kunna konstruera en anläggning, som uppfyller satta tekniska krav, krävs det att man väljer en rationell och effektiv konstruktionsmetod. En viktig aspekt i detta val är hur man verifierar konstruktionens funktion avseende exempelvis bärförmåga eller stadga. För fall när konstruktionens beteende svårt att förutsäga, erbjuder gällande standard (Eurokod 7) den så kallade observationsmetoden. Denna metod tillåter i förväg förberedda förändringar i designen under konstruktionstiden, om observationer av konstruktionens beteende indikerar att så behövs. På så vis anpassas konstruktionen till de faktiska förhållandena i marken. Trots att detta tillvägagångssätt i teorin borde ge en rationell design, används metoden sällan. Det råder därför oklarheter om vilka förutsättningar och omständigheter som krävs för att observationsmetoden ska kunna användas och dessutom utgöra den bästa lösningen. I denna licentiatuppsats granskas observationsmetoden och dess användbarhet. Målet med licentiatuppsatsen är att belysa de aspekter som kan utgöra svårigheter när observationsmetoden används. Dessa identifierades under arbetet med några fallstudier. Licentiatuppsatsen ger därmed en utgångspunkt för fortsatt forskning för att ta fram en mer användbar definition av observationsmetoden. De viktigaste aspekterna som diskuteras i uppsatsen är (1) den skenbara motsatsen mellan användandet av sannolikhetsbaserade beräkningsmetoder för att lösa komplexa dimensioneringsfrågor och kvalitativa ingenjörsmässiga bedömningar, (2) de begränsningar som finns när man använder mätdata för att utvärdera konstruktioners säkerhet, (3) att det för tillfället saknas krav på säkerhetsmarginal mot brott för konstruktioner som byggts med observationsmetoden, och (4) vad svårigheten att uppfylla Eurokodens strikta definition innebär för metodens användbarhet. Utifrån resultatet av granskningen dras slutsatsen att observationsmetoden kan förbättras genom att ge den ett sannolikhetsbaserat ramverk. För att förenkla användningen bör riktlinjer och anvisningar utformas. Även om metoden utvecklas mot en högre grad av beräkningskomplexitet, kommer ingenjörsmässiga bedömningar också framgent att vara viktiga, eftersom en avgörande aspekt är hur problemställningen formuleras. Med ett sannolikhetsbaserat ramverk ökar möjligheten att lösa de frågeställningar kring säkerhet som också diskuteras i uppsatsen. / <p>QC 20140415</p>

<p>QC 20140428</p>

During impact driving of open-ended piles through cohesion-less soil the internal soil column may mobilize enough internal shaft resistance to prevent new soil from entering the pile. This phenomena, referred to as soil plugging, changes the driving characteristics of the open-ended pile to that of a closed-ended, full displacement pile. If the plugging behavior is not correctly understood, the result is often that unnecessarily powerful and costly hammers are used because of high predicted driving resistance or that the pile plugs unexpectedly such that the hammer cannot achieve further penetration. Today the user is generally required to model the pile response on the basis of a plugged or unplugged pile, indicating a need to be able to evaluate soil plugging prior to performing the drivability analysis and before using the results as basis for decision. This MSc. thesis focuses on soil plugging during impact driving of open-ended piles in cohesion-less soil and aims to contribute to the understanding of this area by evaluating models for predicting soil plugging and driving resistance of open-ended piles. Evaluation was done on the basis of known soil plugging mechanisms and practical aspects of pile driving. Two recently published models, one for predicting the likelihood of plugging and the other for predicting the driving resistance of open-ended piles, were compared to existing models. The main outcomes from the model evaluations are: • Internal shaft resistance, pile diameter and pile velocity/acceleration were found to be the primary input parameters affecting the result in the models used to predict if soil plugging is likely to occur. • The pile diameter was shown to have less influence on the calculated driving resistance in the recently published model, derived from measurements of plug length ratios, compared to in the existing model. This thesis also includes a full-scale field study conducted during the initial piling operations for the construction of the new Värtahamnen seaport in Stockholm (Sweden). The soil conditions cause the piles to be driven through very dense post glacial moraine, in which little is known about soil plugging. The drivability performance of 146 open-ended and closed-ended steel pipe piles with diameters ranging from 914-1168 mm was compared through analysis of driving records. The aim was to evaluate if open-ended piles resulted in a drivability related gain and if so during which part of the installation process. The driving records were used to quantify the performance in terms of driving time and energy required to drive the piles. The main conclusions from the field study are: • Significant time savings were achieved by using open-ended piles instead of closedended piles. The time advantage was bigger during impact driving, compared to vibratory driving, and on average the impact driving of open-ended piles took 9 minutes versus 26 minutes for closed-ended piles. • Contrary to what was expected, namely that the open-ended piles would result in lower driving resistance, the results indicate that the majority of the time savings came from open-ended piles being more stable during driving and thereby requiring fewer adjustments. / Under slagdrivning av öppna pålar i friktionsjord förekommer det att den interna jordpelaren mobiliserar tillräckligt mycket internt mantelmotstånd för att förhindra inträngning av ny jord. Detta fenomen, på svenska vanligen kallat jordpluggning, medför att drivbeteendet för pålen övergår till att likna det hos en sluten och massundanträngande påle. Oförmåga att på ett korrekt sätt beakta jordpluggning medför ofta att drivmotståndet för öppna pålar antingen överskattas, vilket medför att onödigt kraftfull och kostsam utrustning används, eller underskattas vilket kan medföra att pålen pluggar och inte kan drivas till avsett djup. I dagsläget kräver drivbarhetsanalyser generellt sett att användaren måste modellera pålen som en pluggad eller opluggad påle. Detta medför att det finns ett behov att kunna utvärderajordpluggning innan drivbarhetsanalysen genomförs, samt även vid utvärdering av resultaten från drivbarhetsanalysen. Detta examensarbete fokuserar på jordpluggning vid slagdrivning av öppna pålar i friktionsjord och syftar till att öka kunskapen inom området genom att utvärdera modeller som kan användas för att uppskatta huruvida jordpluggning är sannolikt, samt modeller för att uppskatta drivmotståndet för öppna pålar. Utvärderingen av nämnda modeller skedde med utgångspunkt i kända mekanismer som förknippas med jordpluggning, samt i praktiska aspekter av påldrivning. Två nyligen publicerade modeller, en avsedd att utvärdera huruvida pluggning är sannolikt och den andra för att uppskatta det förväntade drivmotståndet, jämfördes med befintliga modeller för samma ändamål. De huvudsakliga slutsatserna av modellutvärderingen är: • Internt mantelmotstånd, pålens diameter samt pålens hastighet/acceleration var de faktorer som hade störst inverkan på resultatet hos de modeller som avser utvärdera huruvida jordpluggning är att förvänta. • Pålens diameter visade sig få mindre inverkan på beräknat drivmotstånd i den nyligen publicerade modellen, baserad på mätningar av plugglängd relativt penetrationsdjup, jämfört med i den befintliga modellen. Examensarbetet innefattar även en fältstudie genomförd under inledningen av pålningsarbetet vid uppförandet av nya Värtahamnen i Stockholm. Markförhållandena på platsen medför att pålarna drivs genom bottenmorän, ett jordförhållande där det i stor utsträckning saknas erfarenheter relaterade till jordpluggning. Med hjälp av pålprotokoll jämfördes drivbarheten hos 146 öppna och slutna pålar med diametrar 914-1168 mm. Målet var att fastställa huruvida öppna pålar medförde ökad drivbarhet och i så fall under vilket skede av drivprocessen. Pålprotokollen användes för att kvantifiera vinsten i form av drivtid samt erforderlig drivenergi. De huvudsakliga slutsatserna från fältstudien är: • Betydande tidsvinst kunde påvisas för öppna pålar, jämfört med stängda pålar. Tidsvinsten var större under slagdrivning än under vibrationsdrivning och i snitt 9 minuter jämfört med 26 minuter för stängda pålar. • I motsats till det förväntade utfallet, nämligen att de öppna pålarna inte skulle plugga, antyder resultaten att majoriteten av tidsvinsten kan kopplas till att de öppna pålarna var mer stabila under drivning vilket resulterade i färre korrigeringar

The deep mining industry and civil engineering need to perform rock stability analyses during excavation projects. These analyses are closely related with displacements in tunnel contours. The ground reaction curve is a powerful tool to characterize these displacements that is widely used in the New Austrian Tunneling Method. However, the analytical solutions that exist are only applicable under isotropic stress conditions for deep tunnels. This study aims to investigate when it is possible using the analytical methods to determine the ground reaction curves with enough accuracy in the case of shallow tunnels under anisotropic in-situ stress conditions. The method begins with a literature study. After that, with the help of a 2D model, a comparison between the analytical and the numerical solutions for ground reaction curves at different depths and at different initial in-situ stress ratios was carried out. The results show that both crown and floor displacements deviate more from the analytical solution than the wall displacement. The crown and floor can even move upwards under high initial in-situ stress ratios for shallow tunnels. Because of that, the analytical solution of the ground reaction curve at shallow depths under anisotropic stress conditions should not be used. In the case of isotropic stress field conditions for the analysis in this study, the results given by the analytical solution agree with the numerical ones at depths higher than 14 times the radius of the tunnel. On the other hand, the difference between numerical and analytical solutions becomes higher while increasing the initial in-situ stress ratio, even for very deep tunnels. Furthermore, an empirical equation to obtain the displacements of the ground surface, tunnel wall and tunnel crown has been obtained after a multiple linear regression analysis.

Fältförsöket projekterades av ELU-konsult i Stockholm på beställning av Stockholms stad.

The deep mining and civil engineering industry need to perform rock stability analyses during excavation projects. The stability is mainly controlled by the shear strength of the rock fractures, which are the weakest point of the rock mass. In turn, the shear strength is governed by the mechanical properties of the fractures. It is both time and cost demanding to determine the properties of the rock fractures in laboratory. Also, the interpretation of the results requires a deep understanding of the normal and shear behaviour of rock fractures. This study aims to investigate if it is possible to determine the peak shear strength of rock fractures by merely estimating fracture parameters during field mapping and core logging. SKB supplied test results on drilled bore cores from site investigations in Forsmark and Laxemar for deep nuclear waste deposits. SKB generated data of high quality and in large quantity, which made it very valuable for the purpose of the study. The study begins with a literature review and an interaction matrix, clarifying the relationships between mechanical properties and affecting parameters of rock fractures. The predicted relationships of the parameters are then tested in an analysis based on the compiled data from SKB. The results show that the peak friction angle, the residual friction angle and the dilation angle are possible to approximate for open granite fractures in deep mining projects. Further on, the study proposes that the joint matching coefficient is included in the field mapping and core logging since it has a strong influence on the mechanical behaviour of the fracture, notably the normal and shear stiffness. Finally, the study questions estimations of JRC on small samples.