The objective of this study was to investigate the radio echo sounding properties of Svalbard glaciers and to use these data to obtain information about the glaciological environment. Particular emphasis was placed on obtaining an understanding of the dielectric properties of the ice and reflecting boundaries present. These were then used to elucidate the physical processes causing them. First, a theoretical model, describing the dielectric properties of a wet bed, was developed. The ice/bed interface was then investigated using, as the primary data source, radar reflection coefficients. From these data inferences about the presence of water and/or debris, roughness of the interface and geographical trends were made. A number of geological divides were detected. Second, the dielectric properties of Svalbard ice were considered using i) radio echo sounding data on the bulk in situ radar absorption and ii) measurements made on the dielectric properties of a sample of Spitsbergen ice. Data were collected between 20 Hz and 100 kHz in the temperature range -2.5 to -44.0C . From these and other data deductions about the thermal regime of the ice masses were made and a geographical trend, linked to the reflection coefficients, observed. The theory of dielectric absorption in ice was discussed with an emphasis on the high frequency, radio echo sounding characteristics. Third, the properties of an extraordinary internal reflecting horizon ( observed on 60% of the glaciers sounded in 1983) were investigated. A model was developed to describe the scattering properties of inhomogeneities ( of arbitrary size) within ice. Using this, and data on the re:flec~ing properties of the horizons, they were attributed to the presence of a finite quantity of water. The implications of this finding were considered. Finally, the surface and, where available, bedrock profiles of 40 glaciers and six ice caps, in Spitsbergen, were presented.

Since the 1960s, warming air and sea surface temperatures have led to decreasing sea ice extent and longer periods of open water in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA). Recent and rapid changes have also been observed in the ice discharge patterns of glaciers in this region. For example, Trinity and Wykeham glaciers on the Prince of Wales Icefield (POW), SE Ellesmere Island, contributed ~62% of total ice discharge to the ocean from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago in 2016, compared to ~22% in 2000. Given these changes, an important question is whether there is a relationship between changing sea ice conditions (e.g., extent, freeze up dates, break up dates) and iceberg production from these glaciers. This study used synthetic aperture radar (Radarsat-1, 2 and ALOS PALSAR) and optical (Landsat-7 and 8) imagery to identify iceberg plume events and sea ice break-up/freeze-up dates between 1997 and 2015 for 40 tidewater glaciers around the POW. Results show a clear relationship between the presence of sea ice and the production of icebergs from glaciers, with most events occurring during the open water season and fewer when sea ice was present. While there have not been clear increasing trends of icebergs produced from all glaciers in the POW, Trinity and Wykeham glaciers show that increases in detected iceberg plumes coincide with increases in previously measured glacier velocity and significant terminus retreat. Comparison to ocean temperature, surface air temperature from NCEP/NCAR reanalysis and tidal data showed no clear relationship with increased calving events, however further research into all factors is recommended. It is likely that there are several factors contributing to the spatial and temporal variability of iceberg production from the POW.

No description available.

No description available.

This project presents regional velocity measurements for the eastern portion of the St. Elias Mountains, including the entire glaciated area of Kluane National Park, derived from speckle tracking of Radarsat-2 imagery acquired in winter 2011 and 2012. This technique uses a cross-correlation approach to determine the displacement of the ‘speckle’ pattern of radar phase returns between two repeat-pass images. Further reconstruction of past velocities is performed on a selection of key glaciers using feature tracking of Landsat-5 imagery, allowing for the investigation of variability in glacier motion on interannual and decadal time scales. The results of the analysis showed that there is a strong velocity gradient across the region reflecting high accumulation rates on the Pacific-facing slope of the mountain range. These glaciers may have velocities an order of magnitude greater than glaciers of a similar size on the landward slope. Interannual variability was high, both in relation to surge events, of which a number were identified, and variation of other unknown controls on glacier motion. A long-term trend of velocity decrease was observed on the Kaskawulsh Glacier when comparing the results of this analysis to work carried out in the 1960s, the pattern of which is broadly congruent to measurements of surface elevation change over a similar period.

A great number of tourists visits each day the Fox Glacier in New Zealand and are subjected todangers such as jökulhlaups. This phenomena can occur suddenly and in a destructive way when abuilt up of water suddenly bursts and releases large amounts of water. This is well known to happen atthe near by Franz Josef Glacier which has similar settings to Fox Glacier, but sparse previous researchon the subject indicates different results of whether jökulhlaups are present or not by Fox Glacier. Thisthesis therefore aims to study the conditions for jökulhlaups at the glacier. This is done by remotesensing and field observations of the sandur in the Fox Glacier Valley, qualitative interviews andliterature studies with a comparison with Franz Josef Glacier. The results shows that there has beenjökulhlaups from an ice dammed lateral lake which is also the most likable way for jökulhlaups tohappen again, although there are other potential ways for it to happen due to the large amount of heavyrain that this region gets.

This project presents regional velocity measurements for the eastern portion of the St. Elias Mountains, including the entire glaciated area of Kluane National Park, derived from speckle tracking of Radarsat-2 imagery acquired in winter 2011 and 2012. This technique uses a cross-correlation approach to determine the displacement of the ‘speckle’ pattern of radar phase returns between two repeat-pass images. Further reconstruction of past velocities is performed on a selection of key glaciers using feature tracking of Landsat-5 imagery, allowing for the investigation of variability in glacier motion on interannual and decadal time scales. The results of the analysis showed that there is a strong velocity gradient across the region reflecting high accumulation rates on the Pacific-facing slope of the mountain range. These glaciers may have velocities an order of magnitude greater than glaciers of a similar size on the landward slope. Interannual variability was high, both in relation to surge events, of which a number were identified, and variation of other unknown controls on glacier motion. A long-term trend of velocity decrease was observed on the Kaskawulsh Glacier when comparing the results of this analysis to work carried out in the 1960s, the pattern of which is broadly congruent to measurements of surface elevation change over a similar period.

Surge-type glaciers experience cyclical variations between long periods of slow flow, followed by shorter periods of rapid flow. These glaciers have been thoroughly analysed in many regions, but detailed studies of surging in the Canadian Arctic are lacking. This thesis provides the first comprehensive reconstruction of the dynamics of Iceberg and Airdrop glaciers, located on western Axel Heiberg Island, and reveals detailed observations of a surge for the first time in the Canadian Arctic. A variety of remotely sensed data, including historical aerial photographs, declassified intelligence satellite photographs, optical satellite imagery (e.g., ASTER, Landsat), and synthetic aperture radar data (e.g., ERS-1, ERS-2) were used to quantify changes in terminus position, ice velocity, and ice thickness since the 1950s. A surge initiated at the terminus of Iceberg Glacier in 1981 and terminated in 2003, suggesting an active phase length of 22 years. High surface velocities, peaking at ~2300 m a⁻¹ at the terminus in summer 1991, were accompanied by a terminus advance of >7 km over the period 1981-1997 and a large transfer of mass down-glacier, causing significant median surface elevation changes reaching >3 ± 1 m a⁻¹ across the entire trunk width. The ensuing quiescent period has seen a continual decrease in flow rates to an average centreline velocity of 11.5 m a⁻¹ in 2020-2021, a gradual steepening of the glacier surface, and a terminus retreat of >2.5 km. Observations on Airdrop Glacier show a continuous advance totalling ~6 km since 1950 and notably less variability in its surface velocities in comparison to Iceberg Glacier. This advance can be attributed to consistently high flow rates of Airdrop’s entire surface, resulting in significant thickening near its terminus since at least 1977. However, velocities have more than halved within the last 15 years, but without any clear evidence of previous fast flow events, we cannot confirm whether Airdrop’s behaviour is cyclic in nature and therefore characteristic of a surge. Instead, Airdrop Glacier could be experiencing a delayed response to positive mass balance conditions of the Little Ice Age, and its recent slowdown could be indicative of a gradual adjustment to recent climatic conditions.

No description available.

Le champ de glace nord de Patagonie (NPI) a connu des pertes de glace accélérées depuis le Petit Âge de Glace (PAG). Cette thèse évalue les conditions climatiques moyennes régnant en Patagonie, ainsi que les bilans de masse de surface et les flux de glace engendrés par la dynamique de la glace du NPI. En raison du manque de données disponibles, l’approche est principalement basée sur des modélisations physiques à la fois des conditions atmosphériques et de la dynamique de l’écoulement des glaciers.Dans un premier temps, la dynamique du glacier San Rafael (SRG) est modélisée à l’aide du modèle full-Stokes Elmer/Ice. Le modèle d’écoulement est initialisé et contraint à l’aide des données de vitesse de surface et d’altitude du lit rocheux. Le modèle est forcé en considérant diverses paramétrisations et scénarios d’évolution du bilan de masse de surface (BMS) avec l’altitude. Les modélisations visent à retrouver un accord entre bilan de masse total, BMS et dynamique de la glace. Les simulations montrent que les études précédentes ont systématiquement surévalué l’accumulation sur le plateau et à haute altitude. Le déséquilibre du glacier est principalement contrôlé par un flux de glace élevé (-0.83 +- 0.08 Gt/a) en comparaison du BMS légèrement positif (0.08 +- 0.06 Gt a-1). Nos modélisations permettent d’évaluer que les pertes de glace irréversibles pour le glacier (ou committed mass balance) seront en moyenne de 0.34 +- 0.03 Gt/a pour le prochain siècle. Cette valeur est la perte minimale attendue pour ce glacier en réponse au changement climatique futur.Dans un second temps, nous modélisons le BMS de SRG et de NPI à l’aide d’un modèle de circulation atmosphérique régionale, le modèle MAR. Le modèle est forcé par les reanalyses climatiques ERA-Interim et adapté de façon à reproduire l’accumulation mesurée sur le plateau. Une attention particulière est aussi portée aux valeurs d’ablation et d’albédo. Les températures et précipitations sont validées à l’aide de données provenant des vallées alentour. Entre 1980 et 2014, les valeurs de BMS intégrées à l’échelle du SRG et de NPI était de 0.86 Gt/a et -1.84 Gt/a, respectivement, associées à une forte variabilité interannuelle (de 1.4 Gt/a et 6.1 Gt/a respectivement). Cette variabilité dépend directement de celle des températures et des précipitations neigeuses en Patagonie. En raison de l’hypsometrie du SRG, de faibles variations de BMS autour de la ligne d’équilibre ont un impact très fort sur la valeur intégrée de BMS à l’échelle du glacier. Néanmoins, l’obtention de données in-situ d’accumulation est encore nécessaire pour réduire l’incertitude des valeurs de BMS. Ici, les BMS intégrés à l’échelle des trois plus gros glaciers à terminaison terrestre de NPI ont été validés à partir de bilans géodésiques. Ainsi, combinée aux pertes par vêlage, la valeur négative de BMS proposée pour NPI aurait permis la perte de masse du champ de glace depuis les années 80.Enfin, l’étude du bilan d’énergie de surface révèle que les variations d’albédo contrôlent celles du BMS, car il contrôle le rayonnement de courtes longueurs d’ondes et la fonte du glacier. Les variations d’albédo expliquent indirectement le lien existant entre température et fonte celui-ci étant conditionné par la phase des précipitations sur le plateau. Ainsi, les changements des précipitations neigeuses expliquent les variations de BMS, et nous supposons que les conditions climatiques ayant régné au PAG étaient plus humides et ont permis au glacier de se développer jusqu’à des altitudes trop faibles pour que les glaciers soient stables aujourd’hui.Cette thèse a ainsi permis d’évaluer les conditions atmosphériques régionales et de mieux contraindre la dynamique des glaciers et les valeurs de BMS du champ de glace NPI. Néanmoins, de nouvelles estimations sont à effectuer en zone d’accumulations de NPI pour contraindre encore le BMS et conclure définitivement sur les causes du recul de NPI depuis le PAG. / The Northern Patagonia Icefield (NPI) have been losing mass at an accelerated rate during the last decades compared to the mean losses recorded since the Little Ice Age. Here we look for accurate estimates of the mean climate variables, surface mass balance (SMB) and ice dynamics of NPI. Due to the lack of available data in the area, the approach is based on physical models for both the atmosphere and the ice dynamics, in order to properly attribute the components of the glacial mass budget (mass balance, surface mass balance and ice discharge).First, the San Rafael Glacier (SRG) ice dynamics are modelled using the full-Stokes model Elmer/Ice. The flow model is initialised and constrained using the most up-to-date observations of surface velocities and bedrock elevation. The model is forced with several parametrisations of thealtitudinal SMB distribution to obtain consistency between the changes in SMB and ice dynamics. We show that previous studies have proposed excessive accumulation values on the icefield plateau, and that SRG imbalance is largely controlled by a large ice discharge (-0.83 +- 0.08 Gt/a compared to a slightly positive glacier-wide SMB (0.08 +- 0.06 Gt/a). This allows for an estimation of a committed mass loss of 0.34 +- 0.03 Gt/a for the next century. This value likely constitutes a minimum wastage in the future global climate change situation.Second, we model the SMB of the SRG and the NPI using the regional circulation model MAR (Modèle Atmosphérique Regional). This model is forced by the ERA-Interim reanalysis outputs and adapted to accurately reproduce accumulation on the icefield. In addition to accumulation, attention is paid to estimating accurate ablation and albedo values on the plateau. The modelled temperature and precipitation are also validated using data from weather stations in the valleys around the icefield. For the period 1980-2014, the modelled mean SMB of the SRG and the NPI are 0.86 Gt/a and -1.84 Gt/a, respectively, with a large inter-annual variability of 1.4 Gt/a and 6.1 Gt/a, which is induced by temperature and snowfall variability. Due to the hypsometry of the SRG, small changes in the punctual SMB around the ELA have impacts over large areas and have significant consequences on the final glacier-wide SMB. However, in-situ data above the ELA are lacking, leading to important uncertainty in accumulation. Nevertheless, our SMB estimates for the 3 largest non-calving glaciers of the icefield are similar to mass balance values given by geodetic techniques. This validation shows that our estimate of SMB, which is the first negative proposed at the scale of NPI, is accurate. Combined with the ice discharge proposed in the first section of this study, this SMB could have contributed to the observed mass loss from the 1980s.Finally, the study of the surface energy balance given by MAR reveals the key role of the albedo and the shortwave radiation budget in the variations of the SMB. Albedo variations indirectly justify the existing correlations between temperature and melting as air temperature controls the phase of precipitation on the plateau. Thus, changes in solid precipitation explain most of the SMB variations. Consequently, past conditions with higher solid precipitation may have explained larger glaciers in Patagonia. The current instability is possibly a result from the location of glacier fronts which are well below the necessary altitude for equilibrium in the current icefield topography.This study allows us to conclude that well constrained atmospheric and ice dynamic modelling leads to SMB values which are in better agreement with the mass balance of the icefield. Nevertheless, new field data is necessary to better constrain SMB estimates of the SRG and the NPI in order to improve our understanding of past and future climate change impacts on these glaciers.