The growing consumer demand for edamame (vegetable soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.) in the U.S. has led to current research efforts to increase the production of this nutritious vegetable in the country. This specialty crop has been suggested as an economically attractive alternative to tobacco production, which has decreased in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast areas. Thus, breeding programs led by Virginia Tech and University of Arkansas have been working on the development of edamame cultivars that meet both agronomical and consumer expectations for production and sales in the U.S. In two consecutive years, selected genotypes were tested in the field and by consumers, in order to identify breeding lines that could potentially be released and succeed in the U.S. market. Twenty genotypes were grown in Virginia and Arkansas in 2018 and, among them, ten were selected to be grown in Virginia, Missouri and Mississippi in 2019. Then, sensory evaluation and consumer studies (surveys) were conducted to identify desired/valuable characteristics of edamame and support breeding selection criteria. Participants of the sensory panels were adult volunteers not allergic to soy. Both years, overall acceptability was significantly different among edamame genotypes (p < 0.05) and higher scores were positively associated with 'salty' and 'sweet', but negatively associated with 'bitter', 'sour', 'sulfury/rotten egg' flavor attributes. The a* color coordinate (CIELAB) and green intensity index were significant predictors of appearance liking (p < 0.05) and consumers were willing to pay more for dark green than light green edamame beans. The outcomes of our web-based survey suggested consumers have a positive attitude towards domestically produced edamame and have a higher intention to buy fresh products and edamame in the pods. Additionally, price, availability, and familiarity with the vegetable brand, respectively, seemed to be the most important factors consumers consider in their decision-making process to purchase edamame. These important findings will continue to provide guidance for further research on edamame and can be used to prepare key messages to stakeholders at all stages of the agriculture and food (edamame) systems for the purpose of promoting a sustainable domestic production of this specialty crop in the U.S. / Doctor of Philosophy / The agriculture and food systems have been challenged to develop more nutritious foods and adopt more sustainable practices in order to properly feed our growing global population and improve food security. In this context, foods with sensory characteristics (appearance, aroma, taste, texture) that consumers appreciate have higher chances to succeed in the market, which may reduce food waste. Over the years, several fruit and vegetable crops for U.S. production had their nutritional value, overall quality, and/or agronomic characteristics improved through breeding techniques. In the last decade, edamame (vegetable soybean) has gained attention from plant breeders and food producers due to its increasing consumption and sales in the country. Edamame is a protein-rich legume traditionally consumed in Asia; it has been suggested as a high-value crop for production in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast areas, where tobacco production has decreased significantly. Thus, researchers across the country have been working to develop high-quality edamame seeds that can grow well in the U.S. and can succeed in the domestic market. In 2018, Virginia Tech and University of Arkansas breeding programs selected twenty edamame seeds to be grown in Virginia and Arkansas; then, in 2019, ten of these seeds were grown in Virginia, Missouri, and Mississippi. In sequence, sensory evaluation and consumer studies were performed to support breeding decisions and identify consumers preferences. Overall, edamame described as 'salty' or 'sweet' was preferred over edamame described as 'bitter' or 'sour' and differences in consumer acceptability helped breeders to identify seeds with higher sensory quality. Greener color of edamame beans was associated with more likeable appearance and consumers showed willingness to pay higher price for darker green edamame beans. Our study suggested consumers have a preference for fresh products, for edamame in the pods, and tend to value domestically grown edamame over imported products. Price, availability, and familiarity with the vegetable brand were suggested as the major factors that consumers ponder when purchasing edamame. Our findings will support future research on edamame and can be used to prepare key messages for the purpose of promoting a sustainable production of this nutritious vegetable in the U.S.

Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) and common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) are two of the most troublesome weeds in soybean. Both weeds possess widespread resistance to glyphosate and acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibiting herbicides resulting in the use of protoporphyrinogen oxidase- (PPO) inhibitors to control these biotypes, although PPO-resistant biotypes are increasing. New soybean herbicide-resistant trait technologies enable novel herbicide combinations. Combinations of two herbicide sites-of-action (SOA) improved control 19 to 25% and 14 to 19% of Palmer amaranth and common ragweed, respectively, versus using one SOA (mesotrione, dicamba, 2,4-D, or glufosinate alone). Seed production of 5 to 10 cm Palmer amaranth and common ragweed was reduced greater than 76% by fomesafen, auxin (dicamba and 2,4-D), or glufosinate containing treatments. Some weeds survived and set seed even when treated at the proper size. As weed size increased from 10 to 30 cm, control diminished and fecundity increased, underscoring the importance of proper herbicide application timing. Effective preemergence herbicides reduced the number of weeds present at the postemergence application compared to no treatment, reducing the likelihood of herbicide resistance development. Dicamba, 2,4-D, or glufosinate applied alone or auxin + glufosinate combinations reduced Palmer amaranth seed production greater than 95% when applied at first visible female inflorescence; this first report, in addition to previous reports on individual herbicides, indicates this application timing may be useful for soil seed bank management. This research informs mitigation of herbicide resistance spread and development. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Over 30 million hectares of soybeans were harvested in 2019 in the United States, totaling over $31 billion in value. Two of the most troublesome weeds in soybean, Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) and common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) can cause even greater yield reductions in soybean, up to 79 to 95%, respectively. Frequent, exclusive, and repeated use of a single herbicide has led to multiple herbicide-resistance in both of these weeds. Co-applying two effective herbicides reduces the likelihood of resistance development. New soybean varieties have been genetically modified for resistance to herbicides that were previously unusable, allowing new herbicide combinations. Research was established to investigate these herbicide options to control and reduce seed production of Palmer amaranth and common ragweed with the overarching goal of mitigating herbicide resistance, particularly resistance to protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) inhibiting herbicides, which are a critical part of herbicide options in soybean production. Preemergence herbicides are vital tools in herbicide programs, reducing the number of weeds present at a postemergence application and thereby reducing the risk of herbicide resistance development to the postemergence herbicide. PPO herbicides (flumioxazin, sulfentrazone, or fomesafen) applied preemergence reduced Palmer amaranth and common ragweed density at the postemergence application 82 to 89% and 53 to 94%, respectively. The preemergence herbicide used did not affect control four weeks after the postemergence herbicides were applied. Postemergence herbicides were applied targeting three weed heights: 5 to 10 cm (ideal), 10 to 20 cm, and 20 to 30 cm. Control decreased as weed height increased and larger weeds had greater biomass and seed production, underscoring the importance of proper herbicide application timing. The single site-of-action treatments dicamba, 2,4-D, glufosinate, or fomesafen resulted in greater than 85 and 92% morality of 5 to 10 cm Palmer amaranth and common ragweed, respectively. Palmer amaranth and common ragweed control improved by 19 to 25% and 14 to 19%, respectively, when using two herbicide sites-of-action increased versus using one SOA (mesotrione, dicamba, 2,4-D, or glufosinate alone). The use of two herbicide sites of action resulted in maximum biomass reductions, depending on weed height, of 57 to 96% and 73 to 85% for Palmer amaranth and common ragweed, respectively. Dicamba, 2,4-D, glufosinate alone and in combination with fomesafen reduced seed production (relative to the nontreated) of 5 to 10 cm Palmer amaranth and common ragweed greater than 98 and 76%, respectively. Dicamba, 2,4-D, and glufosinate applied alone or auxin (dicamba and 2,4-D) and glufosinate combinations reduced Palmer amaranth seed production greater than 95% when applied at first visible female inflorescence. This indicates that these herbicides may be useful in soil weed seed bank management. This research reinforces the utility of PPO herbicides for preemergence control and their efficacy postemergence when combined with another effective herbicide, a practice known to reduce herbicide resistance development. This research also reinforces the potential for dicamba, 2,4-D, or glufosinate to reduce weed seed production when applied at a delayed timing. Future research should investigate the progeny of these weeds treated with herbicides at a delayed timing to evaluate the potential for this practice to reduce herbicide resistance development.

Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) is the major virus disease reported all over the world in soybean crop. This disease causes reduction in the yield and quality of soybean crop. Three independent genes Rsv1, Rsv3, and Rsv4, were found to provide host resistance in soybean. Rsv1 confers resistance to all but most virulant strains of SMV. Rsv1 has been mapped to soybean molecular linkage group (MLG) F by using molecular markers. The purpose of this study is to investigate the location of Rsv3 gene on soybean map using molecular markers. The Rsv3 gene of soybean confers resistance to the most vurulent strains (G5-G7) of SMV. In order to map the gene, an F2 population was constructed from a cross between L29, an Rsv3 isoline of 'Williams', and 'Lee 68', a susceptible cultivar. Rsv3 genotypes of 183 F2 plants were determined by inoculating F2:3 progeny with the G7 strain of SMV. A preliminary survey of two parental lines, near isogenic lines (NILs), and bulk segregants with 136 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers yielded 36 markers showing variation between the two parents. These polymorphic RFLP markers unable to provided any indication of linkage to Rsv3. As an alternative strategy, amplified fragment length polymorphic (AFLP) marker analysis of the two parental lines, NILs and bulk segregants was performed using 64 primer combinations. Initial breakthrough came in the form of AFLP primer combination of Eco+AAC/Mse+CTG exhibited polymorphism between NILs, bulk segregants, and two parental lines. This AFLP marker was isolated and cloned to convert it into a RFLP clone to further investigate the linkage to Rsv3 by F2 segregation analysis. A mapping population constructed by crossing Glycine max x Glycine soja employed in determining the location AFLP-derived RFLP clone on soybean linkage map. This population has densely mapped molecular marker data that enabled determining the location of AFLP-derived RFLP clone ACR1 on soybean molecular linkage group (MLG) B2 between the markers pA516 and pA519. This finding, made it easy to establish the linkage of markers pA519, pA516, and pA593 in L29 x Lee 68 population by F2 segregation analysis. The closest marker linked pA519, was 0.9 cM away from Rsv3. In another study Rsv4 is reported to be mapped to MLG D1b of soybean. Results of this study are useful in marker-based selection (MAS), pyramiding viral resistance genes and in cloning the Rsv3 gene. / Master of Science

Edamame's (Glycine max L. Merrill) consumption in the US has also been growing due to purported health benefits. Edamame grows well around the US, but few have measured the growth and yield in the mid-Atlantic region. The objective of these studies were to determine the potential yield of edamame, determine how yield components change with planting date and cultivar, and to measure total protein, lipids, antioxidant activity and isoflavone concentrations at harvest.. The five cultivars (BeSweet 292, BeSweet 2015, BeSweet 2001, Midori Giant and Sunrise) used in the cultivar evaluation trial and for nutritional constituents analysis were grown in Painter, Virginia in 2008 and 2009. The cultivar evaluation trial yielded between 5,600 and 8,400 kg per ha. Percent marketable pods ranged from 74.3 and 85.6% in the cultivar evaluation trial. There were significant differences in average seed size across cultivars in both years. Cultivar lipid content followed the same patterns in both years with 2009 having lower overall concentrations than 2008. Protein contents were similar in 2008 and 2009. Both years, "BeSweet 2015" and "BeSweet 2001" had high radical scavenging ability and Midori Giant had the lowest. In 2008, there were no significant differences in the ORAC assay. "BeSweet 292" had significantly more reducing activity in the DPPH assay than Sunrise in 2009. Isoflavones were measured in 2008 and 2009 at harvest and temporally in 2009. Of all isoflavones, Malonyl genistin had the highest concentration. Edamame is a suitable crop for cultivation in Virginia, and is high in nutritional quality. / Master of Science

The yield response of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] to reproductive stage applications of either nitrogen (N) or boron (B) has been inconsistent. This study evaluated soybean seed yield response to foliar applications of B and soil applications of N at two stages of plant development, at two row spacings, at four irrigation levels, and on three cultivars over three years. Planting dates were either mid-May or mid-June, except the year two of the irrigated soil moisture experiment which had a second planting date of early July. In an experiment to evaluate B rate and timing, B was applied at four rates from 0 to 0.56 kg ha-1 at the R3 or R5 development stage. In an experiment to evaluate N rate and timing, N was applied at seven rates from 0 to 168 kg ha-1 at either the R3 or R5 development stage. A third experiment to evaluate row spacing and cultivar effects on N and B had four treatments: 0 N and 0 B; 56 kg ha -1 N, and 0 B; 0 N and 0.28 kg ha-1 B; and finally 56 kg ha-1 N and 0.28 kg ha-1 B. Treatments were applied to three soybean cultivars planted in either 23 or 46 cm row spacings. The above experiments were irrigated to evaluate treatments at high yield levels. To further evaluate the effect of soil moisture, the same four N and B combinations were applied to soybeans irrigated via a sub-surface micro-drip irrigation system delivering four irrigation regimes: 0%, 33%, 66%, or 100% of plant required water. Gradients were established in year one of this experiment, but late season rains eliminated gradients, and high rainfall in the second year disallowed gradient establishment. Applications of N or B had no effect on seed yields in any experiment, or at any moisture level. In the row spacing and cultivar experiment, there were significant effects of varieties, and a significant interaction between row spacing and variety in two of the three years. / Master of Science

Soybeans within a specific seed size range are often preferred for the manufacture of specialty soy products. This study examined the influence of row spacing and seeding rate on seed yield, average seed size, and seed size uniformity of Camp (small seeded) and V71-370 (large seeded) soybean cultivars [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Experiments were conducted in 1992 and 1993 at Kentland Farm near Blacksburg, Virginia. Row widths of 38 and 76 cm and seeding rates of 125, 250, 500, and 750 thousand seeds ha⁻¹ were used. Averaged over treatments, 38-cm row spacings yielded higher than 76-cm row spacing by 11.6%. Additionally, each increase in seeding rate resulted in increased yield up to 500,000 seeds ha and then leveled off. Yield of useful seed of Camp (total yield multiplied by the proportion of seed between 4.8 and 5.6 mm in diameter) was maximized at narrow row spacings and 500,000 seeds ha⁻¹. Neither row spacing nor seeding rate influenced V71-370 yield of usable seed (larger than 7.9 mm). Averaged over years and cultivars, soybean seed size was not influenced by row spacings or seeding rates. However, in 1993, smaller Camp seed was favored by narrow rows and low seeding rate. Seed size uniformity, as determined by analysis of variance of individual seed weights was, in general, not influenced by row spacing or seeding rates. In a separate investigation in 1992, heritabilities were estimated by two methods using plot data from two replications of lines from crosses of Camp with Jizuka, MD87L-0198, and Stafford soybean cultivars. Heritabilities based on F₃ progeny means regressed on F₂ parental means ranged from 24% to 41% and were lower than the corresponding heritability estimates based on analysis of variance which ranged from 43% to 83%. Correlations of seed size with other agronomic traits were generally low. Although low in magnitude, significant positive correlations of seed size with yield in some crosses might hinder progress of breeders when selecting for small-seeded, high yielding cultivars. / Ph. D.

O melhoramento genético de plantas tem proporcionado incrementos significativos em produtividade na cultura da soja. Porém a existência de inúmeros insetos-praga e doenças tem dificultado o trabalho dos melhoristas, que buscam formas de resistência eficientes para esses estresses. Dentre as doenças que atacam a soja destaca-se a ferrugem asiática da soja, sendo uma ameaça global à produção da cultura, diminuindo a produtividade e aumentando consideravelmente a aplicação de fungicidas nos sistemas de cultivo. Diante disso, o objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar linhagens elite de soja, oriundas de cruzamentos entre genitores adaptados e exóticos, visando à seleção de linhagens resistentes à ferrugem asiática da soja, com altas produtividades e com características agronômicas favoráveis. Foram avaliadas 299 linhagens de soja e cinco testemunhas comerciais, avaliados em três locais contrastantes na safra 2017/2018. Os genótipos foram avaliados com base nos seguintes caracteres: Número de dias para o florescimento (NDF), Número de dias para a maturidade (NDM), Altura da planta na maturidade (APM), Valor agronômico (VA), Acamamento (AC), Massa de cem sementes (MCS) e Produtividade de grãos (PG). Para cada característica, os componentes de variância foram estimados usando o método REML e os valores genotípicos de cada indivíduo foram estimados pelo procedimento BLUP. Também foram estimados os parâmetros de herdabilidade, correlação e ganho com a seleção. Foram selecionados os indivíduos que obtiveram média de PG superior a 1700 kg.ha-1. Para maioria dos caracteres avaliados a variância do ambiente, superou a variância genética e da interação, indicando que o ambiente tem grande influência na expressão dos caracteres. As correlações significativas não apresentaram altas magnitudes, inviabilizando a seleção indireta, portanto é recomendado à seleção conjunta para todos os caracteres. A seleção baseada em altas produtividades gerou ganhos satisfatórios para as demais características. Foi possível observar genótipos que apresentaram bom desempenho nos três ambientes avaliados. Em um dos locais, com maior pressão da doença, foi avaliada a severidade da doença (SEV). Os mesmos 299 genótipos e mais quatro testemunhas, duas resistente (Orba e Bing Nan) e duas suscetíveis (IAC 100 e CD 215), foram avaliados quanto à resistência em casa de vegetação. Três caracteres foram avaliados: Tipo de lesão (RB ou TAN), quantidade de esporos nas lesões na base da planta (QE1) e quantidade de esporos nas lesões na copa da planta (QE2). A herdabilidade para SEV foi de 0,61, esse valor é intermediário, mostrando que a seleção realizada com base nessa característica pode resultar em genótipos mais resistentes. Para EQ1 e EQ2, os resultados indicam que existe variabilidade e consequentemente a herdabilidade também apresentou valores elevados. Constatou-se a dificuldade em unir genótipos com bons níveis de resistência à ferrugem e altas produtividades. Foram encontradas linhagens promissoras para a seleção ou inclusão em cruzamentos visando resistência a esta importante doença da soja. / Breeding of plants has provided significant increases in productivity in the soybean crop. However, the existence of numerous pests and diseases has hampered the work of breeders, who are looking for effective resistance to these stresses. Among soybean diseases, soybean rust is an important threat to soybean production, reducing productivity and considerably increasing fungicide application in cropping systems. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate elite soybean lines, originated from crosses between adapted and exotic parents, aiming the selection of strains resistant to soybean Asian rust, with high yields and favorable agronomic characteristics. A total of 299 soybean lines and five commercial checks were evaluated at three contrasting sites in the 2017/2018 season. The genotypes were evaluated based on the following characters: Number of days to flowering (NDF), Number of days to maturity (NDM), Plant height at maturity (PHM), Agronomic value (AV), lodging (L), 100 seed weight (HSW) and grain yield (GY). For each trait, the components of variance were estimated using the method REML and genotypic values of each individual were estimated by procedure BLUP. The parameters of heritability, correlation, and gain selection were also estimated. Individuals who obtained an average yield of more than 1700 kg.ha-1 were selected. For most of the characters evaluated the environmental variance, it exceeded the genetic variance and the interaction, indicating that the environment has a great influence on the expression of the characters. The significant correlations did not present high magnitudes, making indirect selection unfeasible, so it is recommended to joint selection for all the characters. The selection based on high yields generated satisfactory gains for the other characteristics. It was possible to observe genotypes that showed good performance in the three evaluated environments. In one of the sites with the highest disease pressure the severity of the disease (SEV). The same 299 genotypes and four other checks, two resistant (Orba and Bing Nan) and two susceptible (IAC 100 and CD 215) were evaluated resistance in the greenhouse. Three characters were evaluated: Type of lesion (RB or TAN), amount of spores in the lesions at the base of the plant (QE1) and amount of spores in the crowns of the plant (QE2). The heritability for SEV was 0.61, this value is intermediate, showing that selection based on this characteristic may result in more resistant genotypes. For EQ1 and EQ2, the results indicate that there is variability and consequently the heritability also presented high values. It was verified the difficulty in joining genotypes with good levels of resistance to Rust and high yields. Promising lines were found for selection or inclusion in crosses for resistance to rust.

A produtividade de soja no mundo aumenta há décadas, em razão do avanço genético e das técnicas de cultivo e, em especial, pelo avanço da ciência na melhoria da fixação biológica de nitrogênio (FBN), nutriente exigido em grande quantidade pela soja. Existe a hipótese que a quantidade de nitrogênio (N) fornecida pela FBN e pelo solo não sejam suficientes para dar continuidade ao aumento da produtividade média hoje atingida (3 Mg ha-1), ou seja, o N seria o fator limitante para a soja. Essa hipótese é reforçada quando consideramos que o cultivo de soja é realizado em solos com baixo fornecimento de N, e em condições subótimas para a FBN. Neste contexto, seria necessário a adubação nitrogenada para complementar a demanda da cultura pelo nutriente. Dessa forma, caberia o uso da adubação nitrogenada para complementar a demanda da soja pelo N? A demanda de N pela soja, pode até ser complementada via fertilização. Entretanto, a mesma só faz sentido se não houver prejuízo à FBN, processo que sempre deve ser priorizado. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo verificar a produtividade da soja e, compreender a resposta da planta à fertilização nitrogenada, no que diz respeito ao aproveitamento do N do fertilizante e sua influência na FBN. Para tanto, foram realizados dois anos de experimentos em ambiente tropical (Cerrado, Estado do Mato Grosso) e subtropical (sul do Estado de São Paulo). As fontes de variação experimentais foram doses (0, 20, 40, 80 e 120 kg ha-1) de N, e épocas de aplicação do fertilizante (VE, e R3) utilizando ureia aplicada com incorporação ao solo. Outro experimento foi realizado com a aplicação de ureia em baixas doses (650, 1300 e 1950 g ha-1 de N) em R1 ou R3 em Ambiente subtropical. Em ambos experimentos, foi utilizado o N marcado com o isótopo 15N. Não houve resposta produtiva da soja às doses de N aplicadas. Entre as épocas de aplicação, foi verificado que em uma das safras no Cerrado, houve maior produtividade (400 kg ha-1) com o fornecimento de N em R3. Porém essa resposta é obtida em determinadas condições ambientais, ou seja, o fornecimento de N não é garantia de aumento de produção, e a resposta é incerta. Houve redução da FBN, em porcentagem (% de N na planta derivado da atmosfera), da ordem de 15% entre a soja sem N e a soja com 120 kg N ha-1. A extração de N total foi 8% maior com a adubação em R3. O aumento do N (20 kg ha-1) da parte aérea com a aplicação em R3 no Cerrado, acompanhou o aumento de produtividade, mas esse aumento não foi provocado pelo N derivado do fertilizante (Ndff). A eficiência de uso do N (NUE) apresentou valores próximos a 50%, e, foi semelhante entre as duas épocas de aplicação de N em ambos os ambientes. No outro experimento, o fornecimento de N foliar não aumentou a produtividade, embora a NUE seja alta, com média de 64%. / The soybean yield in the world has been increasing for decades, due to the cultivation techniques, the cultivars, and the advancement of science in improving the biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), nutrient required in large quantities for soybeans. There is hypothesis that the quantity of nitrogen (N) provided by the BNF and soil are not enough to continue to increase yields today achieved (3 Mg ha-1), or N would be the limiting factor for soybeans. This hypothesis is reinforced when we consider that soybean cultivation is carried out in soils with low N supply, and suboptimal conditions for BFN. In this scenario, it would be the use of nitrogen fertilizer to supplement the soybean demand for N? The demand of N by soybeans may even be supplemented via fertilization. However, it only makes sense if there is (NUE) o damage to the BFN, a process that should always be prioritized. Many experiments with supply of mineral N have been conducted. Some tested negative, others positive. Producers are also conducting nitrogen fertilization in soybean, without proper knowledge of the subject. This study aimed to evaluate the production of soybean response, and understand the reaction of the plant to nitrogen fertilization, with regard to the use of N fertilizer and its influence on BFN. For that, two years of experiments were performed in tropical environment (Cerrado, Mato Grosso) and subtropical (southern state of São Paulo). The experimental variation sources were nitrogen rates, and fertilizer application times, using N marked with the 15N isotope. The application of nutrients has been tried in the soil, and also in soybean leaves. Verified productive soybean response to the supply of N in the Cerrado where the amount of N available to the crop is low. However such response is achieved under certain environmental conditions or N supply is no guarantee production increase, and the response is uncertain. The BFN is reduced, if not in absolute terms (kg ha-1 de N fixed by FBN), in percentages (% of N at plant from atmosphere). The total N extraction was always higher with fertilization in R3, and the Cerrado environment the application at this stage caused increased yeld, but only in one crop season. Increasing Number of shoot with the application in R3 in Primavera do Leste, accompanied the increase in productivity, but this increase was not caused by N fertilizer (Ndff). The N use efficiency showed values close to 50% and was similar between the two N application timing in both environments. In the tropical environment NUE decreased with increasing N rate. In subtropical environment NUE was constant. The supply of leaf N did not increase productivity, although the NUE is high, averaging 64%.

Soja [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] é a oleaginosa mais amplamente cultivada em todo o mundo. E para que seja possível que se obtenha uma produção economicamente viável, além da adoção de técnicas para um manejo que otimize a produtividade, é necessário um ambiente que ofereça características adequadas para o bom crescimento e desenvolvimento da planta. Dentre as condições adversas que podem alterar negativamente o desenvolvimento, a escassez de água é a restrição ambiental que induz maiores perdas e diminui a produção em nível global. Neste âmbito, diversos produtos vêm sendo desenvolvidos e utilizados com o objetivo de diminuir os efeitos negativos ocasionados por alta intensidade luminosa, altas temperaturas e déficit hídrico na produtividade das plantas. Dentre estes, destacam-se certos produtos químicos que podem ser usados para mitigar o estresse da planta, como o caulim e o carbonato de cálcio. Embora haja um volume considerável de estudos do uso destes antitranspirantes como protetor, principalmente da aplicação do caulim, a maioria destes são com hortifrutis e plantas ornamentais, sendo incipiente os estudos sobre sua utilização em soja. Além disto, há a necessidade da elucidação dos resultados do uso conjunto de caulim e carbonato de cálcio. O experimento foi realizado na casa de vegetação do Laboratório de Estudo de Plantas Sob Estresse (LEPSE) da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" - Universidade de São Paulo (ESALQ - USP). Os tratamentos consistiram na pulverização de caulim e carbonato de cálcio nas seguintes doses: 0 L ha-1 (controle), 10 L ha-1 e 20 L ha-1 e submetidas ao déficit hídrico pelo método gravimétrico mediante duas reposições hídricas no solo: com irrigação (100% da capacidade de campo, CC) e déficit hídrico (40% da capacidade de campo, CC). Neste experimento, os regimes hídricos não apresentaram diferenças estatísticas significantes nos primeiros dias, apesar disto, esta restrição na disponibilidade de água foi suficiente para alterar algumas variáveis analisadas, sugerindo um efeito no metabolismo das plantas. Foi avaliado que o déficit hídrico afetou a maquinaria fotossintética, afetando as características fisiológicas das plantas de soja, com diminuição da condutância estomática, assimilação de CO2, taxa transpiratória, temperatura foliar, eficiência quântica de assimilação de CO2, Coeficiente de extinção fotoquímica e Taxa aparente de transporte de elétrons, além de aumento do Coeficiente de extinção não fotoquímica. Estes resultados indicam que o agroquímico a base de caulim e carbonato de cálcio não altera o metabolismo em plantas de soja nas condições utilizadas neste experimento, sendo evidente apenas os resultados decorrentes da restrição hídrica. / Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is the most widely grown oilseed in the world. And to be possible to obtain an economically viable production, besides the adoption of techniques for a management that optimizes productivity, an environment is needed that offers adequate characteristics for the good growth and development of the plant. Among adverse conditions that can negatively alter development, water deficit is the environmental constraint that induces greater losses and decreases production at the global level. In this context, several products have been developed and used with the objective of reducing the negative effects caused by high light intensity, high temperatures and water deficit in plant productivity. These include certain chemicals that can be used to mitigate plant stress, such as kaolin and calcium carbonate. Although there is a considerable amount of studies on the use of these antiperspirants as a protector, mainly of the application of kaolin, the majority of these are with vegetables and ornamental plants, being incipient the studies on their use in soy. In addition, there is a need to elucidate the results of the use a product consisting of kaolin and calcium carbonate. The experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of the Laboratory of Study of Under Stress Plants (LEPSE) of the \"Luiz de Queiroz\" School of Agriculture - University of São Paulo (ESALQ - USP). The treatments consisted of spraying kaolin and calcium carbonate in the following doses: 0 L ha-1 (control), 10 L ha-1 and 20 L ha-1 and submitted to water deficit by gravimetric method (100% of the field capacity, CC) and water deficit (40% of the field capacity, CC). In this study, a water deficit that caused damage to the photosynthetic machinery of soybean plants was evaluated. The results presented allow us to propose that kaolin induces an improvement in the photosynthetic performance of the hydrated plants, whose responses may possibly increase the final yield of the plants. Under water deficit, high temperature and irradiance the product is not able to maintain the photosynthetic parameters, as observed in other studies. In this experiment, water deficit didn\'t present significant statistical differences in the first days, although, this restriction in water availability was enough to alter some variables analyzed, suggesting an effect on plant metabolism. It was evaluated that the water deficit affected the photosynthetic machinery, affecting the physiological characteristics of the soybean plants, with a decrease in stomatal conductance, CO2 assimilation, transpiration rate, leaf temperature, quantum efficiency of CO2 assimilation, photochemical extinction coefficient and apparent rate of electron transport, in addition to increasing the non-photochemical extinction coefficient. These results indicate that the agrochemical based on kaolin and calcium carbonate don\'t alter the metabolism in soybean plants under the conditions used in this experiment, being evident only the results of the water restriction.

Programas de melhoramento genético são fundamentais para suprir à crescente demanda por maiores rendimentos. Contudo, existem alguns fatores restritivos à produtividade, como a incidência de insetos-praga e doenças. Dentre os insetos que atacam a cultura da soja, os percevejos são considerados pragas-chave, pois se alimentam diretamente da parte reprodutiva das plantas, danificando vagens e sementes. A seleção para resistência a percevejos pode levar a redução da produtividade, na ausência dessas pragas. Dessa forma o objetivo geral desse trabalho foi avaliar linhagens elite de soja em duas safras (2013/2014 e 2014/2015), sendo a primeira com controle dos percevejos e a outra sob ataque natural desses insetos. Na safra de 2013/2014 foram avaliadas 295 linhagens de soja, previamente selecionadas para resistência ao complexo de percevejos, e nove testemunhas (BMX Ativa, NA5909 RR, FTS Arapoty, FTS Campo Mourão, NA4823RR, IAC-100, V Max, CD-215 e BMX Potência) em dois ambientes. Os caracteres avaliados foram: número de dias para a maturidade (NDM); período de granação (PEG); valor agronômico (VA); acamamento (AC); produtividade de grãos (PG); peso de cem sementes (PCS). Foram calculados os componentes de variância e valor genotípicos pelo método REML/BLUP, herdabilidade e correlação genotípica. A seleção dos genótipos foi baseada no caráter PG, sendo considerado para seleção valores acima de 3000 kg.ha-1. A herdabilidade entre os caracteres avaliados variou de 0,084 (PEG) a 0,854 (PCS). Sete correlações apresentaram significância (P < 0,05) pelo Teste t, sendo que para PG apenas as correlações com VA e AC foram significativas. A seleção baseada na PG foi satisfatória para gerar ganho para todas as características avaliadas, sendo que alguns genótipos tiveram valor genotípico favorável ou contrário ao ganho de seleção estimado. Na safra de 2014/2015, as mesmas linhagens e testemunhas foram avaliadas sob infestação natural de percevejos. Os caracteres avaliados foram número de dias para a maturidade (NDM); altura da planta na maturidade (APM); acamamento (AC); valor agronômico (VA); produtividade de grãos (PG); período de granação (PEG); peso de cem sementes (PCS); retenção foliar (RF); e peso de sementes boas (PSB). As análises foram semelhantes à da safra anterior, com exceção que seleção foi baseada na característica PSB, visando a obtenção de genótipos superiores, considerando resistência ao complexo de percevejos e alto rendimento. A população de percevejos foi avaliada pelo método pano de batida, sendo que houve aumento dos mesmo durante o período de granação, chegando a um nível superior ao patamar para danos econômicos. A variância genotípica teve maior magnitude que a variância residual para VA, PSB e PCS, indicando alta variabilidade genética para essas características. As herdabilidades observadas foram de intermediária a alta, variando de 0,553 (APM) a 0,838 (PSC). A maioria das correlações foram significativas pelo teste de t (P < 0,05). A maior correlação positiva encontrada foi entre PSB e PG (0,765), enquanto que a negativa foi entre VA e RF (- 0,835). PSB teve correlações significativas com todas as outras características e foi eficiente para selecionar genótipos com alto rendimento, boas características agronômicas e resistentes ao complexo de percevejos. / Breeding programs are essential to meet the growing demand for high yield crops. However, there are some factors that can preclude production increase such as pests and diseases incidence. Among these pests, stinkbugs are considered a major issue and may hamper soybean farming due its feeding behavior, spoiling the reproductive parts of the plants (e.g. pods and seeds). Selection for resistance to stink bugs may reduce productivity when these insects are absent. Thus the aim of this study was to evaluate soybean lines in two seasons (2013/2014 and 2014/2015), the first controlling the stinkbug\'s population and the other under natural attack of these insects. In the 2013/2014 season 295 soybean lines, previously selected for resistance to stinkbugs complex and nine commercial cultivars (BMX Ativa, NA5909 RR, FTS Arapoty, FTS Campo Mourão, NA4823RR, IAC-100, V Max, CD-215 e BMX Potência) were evaluated in both environments. The evaluated traits were: number of days to maturity (NDM); graining period (PEG); agronomic value (VA); lodging (AC); grain yield (PG); one hundred seeds weight (PCS). The variance components and genotypic value were estimated by REML / BLUP method, heritability and genetic correlations were calculated. The selection of genotypes was based on PG, being considered for selection values above 3000 kg ha-1. The heritability of the traits ranged from 0.084 (PEG) to 0.854 (PCS). Seven correlations were significant (P <0.05) by t test, and for PG only correlations with VA and AC were significant. Selection based on PG was satisfactory to generate gains for all traits evaluated, and some genotypes had genotypic values favorable or contrary to gain selection. In the 2014/2015 season, the same lines and commercial cultivars were evaluated under natural infestation of stinkbugs. The characters evaluated were number of days to maturity (NDM); plant height at maturity (APM); lodging (AC); agronomic value (VA); grain yield (PG); graining period (PEG); one hundred seeds weight (PCS); leaf retention (RF); and good seed weight (PSB). The analyzes were similar to the previous season, except that selection was based on the PSB in order to obtain superior genotypes, considering resistance to complex bugs and high yield. The population of stinkbugs was controlled by beating cloth method, and the population increased during the graining period, reaching a level higher than the level for economic losses. The genotypic variance was higher than the residual variance for VA, PSB and PCS, suggesting high genetic variability for these traits. The heritability observed were intermediate to high, ranging from 0.553 (APM) to 0.838 (PSC). Most of the correlations were significant by t test (P <0.05). The highest positive correlation was found between PSB and PG (0.765), while the negative was between VA and RF (-0.835). PSB had significant correlations with all other features and was efficient to select genotypes with high yield, good agronomic characteristics and better resistance to the stinkbugs incidence.