Orientadores: Roberto Perez Xavier, Antônio João Paes de Barros / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociências / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T19:24:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Assis_RafaelRodriguesde_M.pdf: 63971305 bytes, checksum: 10519618069ab0467e9938bc90213f76 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: A Província Aurífera de Alta Floresta, porção centro-sul do Craton Amazônico, localiza-se entre os limites das províncias geocronológicas Ventuari - Tapajós (1,95-1,8 Ga) e Rio Negro - Juruena (1,8-1,55 Ga). Corresponde a uma unidade tectônica essencialmente composta por sequências plutono-vulcânicas geradas em ambiente de arcos magmáticos que se desenvolveram e se agregaram progressivamente no Paleoproterozóico. No segmento leste da província, na região que compreende os municípios de Nova Santa Helena - Peixoto de Azevedo - Guarantã do Norte - Novo Mundo (MT), rochas plutônicas e vulcânicas são as hospedeiras de mais de uma centena de depósitos auríferos que ocorrem concentrados ao longo do Cinturão Peru-Trairão, de direção NW-SW. Inseridos neste contexto, estão os depósitos Pé Quente e Francisco, alvos de estudo deste trabalho. O Depósito Pé Quente hospeda-se na suíte homônima, que compreende quartzo monzodiorito-monzodiorito a leucomonzonito, isotrópicos, inequigranulares a equigranulares. Apatita, rutilo e zircão correspondem às fases acessórias comuns na suíte. Nos arredores do depósito são individualizadas uma série de manifestações plutônicas mais tardias, não cogenéticas a Suíte Pé Quente, de composição eminentemente granítica e com biotita, hornblenda, titanita, apatita e magnetita como fases acessórias. Diques de vulcânicas são comuns na região e truncam todas as suítes supracitadas. A Suíte Pé Quente exibe afinidade geoquímica com as séries cálcio-alcalinas de médio K, metaa peraluminosas e magnesianas, semelhante aos granitos orogênicos do tipo I, enquanto que as demais suítes são cálcio-alcalinas de médio a alto K, metaluminosas e magnesianas, mas ligeiramente ferrosas. No geral, as observações petrográficas e geoquímicas indicam que essas suítes plutônicas correspondem a granitos do tipo I que teriam se originado em ambiente de arcos vulcânicos evoluindo para arcabouço pós-colisional. A Suíte Pé Quente foi submetida a expressivos estágios de alteração hidrotermal, a destacar: (i) forte alteração sódica com albita; (ii) alteração potássica com ortoclásio + microclínio; (iii) alteração sericítica; (iv) carbonatação; (v) alteração pervasiva a venular com muscovita grossa fibro-radial; (vi) silicificação com brechas e veios com textura do tipo pente subordinadas; (vii) alteração sódica fissural com quartzo + albita e; (viii) alteração propilítica mais tardia e regional. O minério no Deposto Pé Quente é representado pela paragênese pirita + barita ± hematita ± calcopirita ± galena, associada tanto à alteração sódica pervasiva mais precoce quanto à fissural (quartzo + albita). O ouro é mais frequente na alteração pervasiva, na qual ocorre incluso na pirita e exibe concentrações em Ag que variam de 14,2 a 46,3%. Estudos preliminares de inclusões fluidas na zona de minério disseminado indicam fluidos eminentemente aquo-carbônicos em coexistência com fluidos aquosos bifásicos. Os principais atributos geológicos do Depósito Pé Quente correspondem: (i) íntima associação com rochas originadas em arcabouço de arcos vulcânicos (granitos tipo I); (ii) alteração hidrotermal extensa e zonada, com oscilações nas aNa+, aK+, aH+ and aCa2+; (iii) minério que representa fluidos de natureza oxidada. Neste sentido, o Depósito Pé Quente reflete um sistema com múltiplos pulsos de fluidos hidrotermais possivelmente relacionados a estágios de desgaseificação da câmara magmática em um contínuo gradativo de rebaixamento da temperatura. A precipitação do minério aurífero teria ocorrido mediante imiscibilidade de fluidos em um sistema magmático-hidrotermal a elevadas temperaturas e ¿O2, típicos das raízes de sistemas auríferos do tipo pórfiro. O contexto geológico do Depósito do Francisco, no entanto, é distinto daquele observado no Depósito Pé Quente. A região de União do Norte, onde se localiza o Depósito do Francisco, é constituída por uma Unidade Vulcanoclástica epiclástica que aloja uma série de intrusões graníticas paleoproterozóicas. Essa unidade vulcanoclástica é composta por arenito arcoseano, arenito arcoseano lítico, grauvaca-feldspática e lentes de conglomerado polimítico matriz suportada, todos vulcanoclásticos. Esses sedimentos teriam sido provenientes da dissecação de antigos edifícios vulcânicos de composição intermediária e depositados em uma bacia de retroarco, próxima à área fonte. As suítes intrusivas são temporalmente representadas por plútons de (i) granodiorito com tonalito e quartzo monzodiorito subordinados; (ii) sieno-monzogranito e; (iii) pelo Pórfiro União do Norte, uma manifestação sub-vulcânica que consiste de álcali-feldspato granito porfirítico a monzogranito porfirítico. As duas primeiras suítes são cogenéticas e correlacionáveis à Suíte Intrusiva Matupá (1.872 ±12Ma), enquanto que o granito sub-vulcânico estaria relacionado as manifestações graníticas pós-colisionais do tipo A da Suíte Intrusiva Teles Pires (1.782 ±17 Ma a 1.757 ±16 Ma). Truncando todas essas unidades ocorrem diques de vulcânicas de composição traquibasáltica a dacítica. A litogeoquímica do Pórfiro União do Norte indica magmatismo eminentemente alcalino de alto potássico, ferroso e meta- a peraluminoso, enquanto que os diques de vulcânicas e as demais suítes plutônicas exibem afinididades geoquímicas com as séries cálcio-alcalinas de alto K, metaluminosas, magnesianas a ligeiramente ferrosas. Evidências de campo em conjunto com os dados litogeoquímicos ainda apontam para uma evolução do magmatismo com geração de rochas mais primitivas em ambiente de arcos vulcânicos (granodiorito; Suíte Intrusiva Matupá) até o alojamento de corpos altamente evoluídos (Pórfiro União do Norte; Suíte Intrusiva Teles Pires) em contexto pós-colisional. Todas essas unidades são ainda recobertas pelos sedimentos arenáceos da Formação Dardanelos, com idade máxima de deposição entre 1.987 ±4 Ma a 1.377 ±13 Ma. Na região de União do Norte desponta o Depósito do Francisco, o primeiro depósito epitermal polimetálico de intermediária sulfetação da Província Aurífera de Alta Floresta, e ao qual o ouro está associado a elevadas concentrações de metais de base (Zn+Pb±Cu). As zonas mineralizadas são representadas pela associação pirita + esfalerita + galena + hematita ± calcopirita ± magnetita ± digenita. O minério ocorre hospedado na Unidade Vulcanoclástica em veios com intensa silicificação e extenso halo de alteração sericítica. As alterações potássica, argílica e propilítica são as mais distais ao minério, sendo que as duas primeiras ocorrem intimamente associadas ao Pórfiro União do Norte. Estudos premilimares de inclusões fluidas realizados nas zonas mineralizadas indicam regime de fluidos eminentemente aquosos, com inclusões aquosas primárias que exibem heterogeneidade no grau de preenchimento pela fase de vapor (10-70%). Os principais atributos geológicos do depósito do Francisco podem ser considerados: (i) alteração hidrotermal e minério íntimamente associados a um granito sub-vulcânico (Pórfiro União do Norte) que teria se saturado em uma fase aquosa residual decorrente de sua cristalização; (ii) alunita, embora em pequenas concentrações, associadas a ocorrênicas de silica cap; (iii) minério hospedado em rochas sedimentares epiclásticas; (iv) zonas mineralizadas que frequentemente exibem texturas indicativas da percolação de fluidos em nível crustal raso; (v) minério aurífero associado tanto a elevadas concentrações de metais de base quanto de prata; (vi) paragênese do minério dominada por fases ricas em sulfetos, o que indica oscilações no estado de sulfetação do enxofre. Todas essas características são similares àquelas encontradas em depósitos epitermais polimetálicos de intermediária sulfetação. Devido à presença constante de texturas que tipificam a percolação de fluidos em nível crustal raso nas regiões internas, proximais e de contato do Pórfiro União do Norte, além da existência de apófises sub-vulcânicas intensamente sericitizadas e/ou silicificadas, é proposto que esta suíte tenha correspondido ao evento termal causativo da mineralização aurífera associada a metais de base do Depósito do Francisco. Desta forma, sugere-se que a Suíte Intrusiva Teles Pires, até o momento conhecida por ser estéril a ouro, possa ter potencial, mesmo que restrito às suas ocorrências sub-vulcânicas, para hospedar mineralizações auríferas com metais de base associados. Em adicional, o contexto pós-colisional em que o depósito se formou teria promovido a sua preservação quanto aos agentes erosivos, metamórficos e de deformação que posteriormente poderiam ter afetado e destruído o depósito. Neste contexto, a deposição do ouro no Depósito do Francisco ocorreu mediante aumento das condições de ¿O2 do fluido (precipitação de hematita) decorrente da entrada de fluidos externos e oxidantes (meteóricos), potencializada por eventos de fraturamento hidráulico quando o granito sub-vulcânico se saturou em uma fase fluida residual (expansão adiabática seguida de ebulição). As elevadas concentrações de metais de base aliadas ao processo de ebulição ainda sugerem que variações na temperatura e pH foram importantes na precipitação do minério. Neste cenário, as suítes plutônicas individualizadas neste trabalho começaram a ser geradas em um momento anterior ao magmatismo da Suíte Intrusiva Matupá (1.872 ±12Ma), com a colocação da Suíte Pé Quente. Com a continuidade do envento magmático, suítes graníticas mais evoluídas foram sendo geradas, até o alojamento da Suíte Intrusiva Teles Pires (~ 1.757 Ma), que representa a colocação de intrusões mais tardias (Pórfiro União do Norte), em plataforma continental pós-colisional (granito tipo A). A depender do modelo geotectônico adotado, o conjunto dessas suítes, portanto, teria sido criado durante a instalação dos arcos magmáticos Cuiú-Cuiú (2,1-1,9 Ga) e Juruena (1,8-1,75 Ga), ou então, no decorrer do Arco Magmático Ventuari-Tapajós (1,95 e 1,8 Ga). As informações aqui reunidas indicam que os depósitos estudados podem ser enquadrados em distintos sistemas mineralizados no modelo geral dos depósitos do tipo ouro pórfiro - epitermal, no qual a colocação de intrusões paleoproterozóicas teria correspondido às fontes geradoras de calor, fluidos e metais necessários para a instalação de um sistema magmático-hidrotermal. O Depósito Pé Quente corresponderia a um sistema de maior profundidade e temperatura, no qual a forte alteração sódica com albita, com fluidos oxidados eminentemente aquosos e aquo-carbônicos representariam as zonas mais profundas de depósitos auríferos do tipo pórfiro. Em contraste, o Depósito do Francisco seria correlato às mineralizações de níveis crustais mais raros, com grande aporte de fluidos meteóricos, e relativamente distais de intrusivas félsicas. Deste modo, as mineralizações auríferas com metais de base associados seriam equivalentes aos depósitos epitermais polimetálicos de intermediária sulfetação. / Abstract: The Alta Floresta Gold Province, eastern portion of the Amazon Craton, extends between the Ventuari - Tapajós (1.95 to 1.8 Ga) and Rio Negro - Juruena (1.8 to 1.55 Ga) geochronological provinces. This provinces represents a tectonic unit composed primarily of plutono-volcanic sequences generated in continental arc settings during the Paleoproterozoic. At the easternmost segment of the province, in region that comprises the districts of Nova Santa Helena - Peixoto de Azevedo - Guarantã do Norte - Novo Mundo (MT), a significant number of gold deposits are distributed along a NW-SW striking belt (Peru - Trairão belt). Within this belt, the Pé Quente and Francisco gold deposits, currently exploited by local prospectors (garimpeiros), are the main case studies of this work. The Pé Quente deposit is hosted by the Pé Quente Suite that consists of quartz-monzodiorite to leucomonzonite with apatite, rutile and zircon as accessory phases. Several other later granitic intrusions occur in the vicinity of the deposit, but geological relationships and geochemical data suggest neither genetic nor temporal links to the Pé Quente Suite. These suites are mainly granitic composition and have biotite, hornblende, titanite, apatite and magnetite as accessory phases. Volcanic dikes are often in the area and crosscut all these plutonic suites. The Pé Quente suite exhibits geochemistry affinities to the medium-K, calc-alkaline, meta- to peraluminous and magnesian granitic series, thus similar to the I-type orogenic granites, whereas the other suites are medium to high-K, metaluminous and magnesian, but slightly ferroan. Additionally, petrographic and geochemical data indicate that these rocks correspond to I-type granitic series that probably had been generated in a volcanic arc setting that have also evolved to a post-collisional one. The Pé Quente Suite has been affected by the following hydrothermal alteration types (temporal sequence): (i) strong sodic alteration with albite; (ii) potassic alteration with orthoclase and microcline; (iii) sericitic alteration; (iv) carbonate alteration represented by calcite; (v) pervasive to venular coarse muscovite alteration; (vi) silicification with breccias and comb-texture quartz veins; (vii) fissural sodic alteration that consists of quartz + albite and; (viii) later and regional propylitic alteration. The ore zones comprise pyrite + barite ± hematite ± chalcopyrite ± galena that are related to both earlier sodic alteration and later veins with quartz and albite. Gold generally occurs as small inclusions within pyrite and shows Ag concentrations that range from 14.2 to 46.3%. Preliminary studies of fluid inclusions within the disseminated ore-zones indicate carbonic fluids that coexisting with aqueous biphasic. The main geological feautures of this deposit are: (i) close association with rocks that have been originated in the onset of volcanic arcs (granite type I), (ii) widespread and zoned hydrothermal alteration, with oscillations in aNa+, aK+, aH+ and aCa2 +; (iii) ore that represents oxidized fluids. Therefore, the Pé Quente deposit is interpreted to have been formed from multiple pulses of hydrotermal fluids, possibly generated by episodes of magma degassing. The ore precipitation might have taken place by fluid immiscibility within a high-temperature and high-¿O2 system, similar to those related to root zones of porphyry systems. Very dissimilar from the Pé Quente gold deposit, the Francisco gold deposit, in the União do Norte region, is hosted by an epiclastic volcaniclastic unit that is crosscut by a series of Paleoproterozoic granitic intrusions. This unit contains mainly feldspathic-arenite and feldspathic-wake, besides lenses of matrix-supported conglomerate, both volcaniclastics. The sediments that compose the rocks of this unit have possibly derived from the erosion of old volcanic centers of intermediate composition in a active continental setting. Furthermore, the sediments might have been deposited in a retroarc basin, near to the source-area. The intrusive suites are sequentially represented by: (i) granodiorite with tonalite and quartz-monzodiorite subordinate; (ii) sieno- to monzogranite and; (iii) União do Norte Porphyry, a subvolcanic manifestation that comprises porphyritic alkali-feldspar granite and porphyritic monzogranite. The firt two suites are tentatively correlated with the Matupá Intrusive Suite (1.872 ±12Ma), whereas the porphyry could be related to the post-collisional A-type granitic rocks from the Teles Pires Intrusive Suite (1.782 ±17 Ma to 1.757 ±16 Ma). Mafic to felsic volcanic dikes that consist of trachybasalt, basaltic-trachyandesite, andesite and dacite crosscut both the volcaniclastic unit and the granitic suites. Litogeochemical data from the União do Norte Porphyry indicate that this suite represents an alkaline, high-K, magnesian to ferroan, meta- to slightly peraluminous magmatism, whereas the volcanic dikes and the two other plutonic suites exhibit geochemical affinities with to the calc-alkaline, high-K, metaluminous and magnesian to slightly ferroan series. Additionally, field and geochemical data indicate that the granitic suites represent a magmatic series that were probably formed in the onset of a volcanic arc setting, manly with granodioritic rocks (Matupá Intrusive Suite), which evolved to the emplacement of highly-evolved granitic rocks, such as the União do Norte Porphyry (Teles Pires Intrusive Suite) in a postcollisional setting. All these units are still overlain by arenaceous sediments of the Dardanelos Formation (1.987 ±4Ma to 1.377 ±13Ma). In this geological setting, the Francisco deposit represents the first intermediate-sulfidation epithermal gold mineralization associated with base metals (Zn+ Pb±Cu) in the Alta Floresta Gold Province. Pyrite + sphalerite + galena + chalcopyrite ± hematite ± magnetite ± digenite represent the ore zones, hosted at the Volcanilcasto unit. The ore occurs in veins with strong silicification and extensive sericitic halo. The potassic (ortoclase ± hematite ± quartz ± biotite), argillic (kaolinite + sericite + quartz ± hematite), propilitic (chlorite + epidote + magnetite ± actinolite ±calcite ± apatite ± pyrite ± chalcopyrite ± quartz ± shalerite ± margarite) alterations, plus the late-hematite veins, correspond to the distal hydrothermal alterations to the ore zone. The potassic and argililic alterations generally are closely associated to the União do Norte Porphyry. Preliminary studies of fluid inclusions within the ore zones indicate the presence of an aqueous fluid system represented by primary aqueous inclusions with heterogeneity in the vapor-phase filling degree (10-70%). The main geological feautures of the deposit are: (i) hydrothermal alteration and ore closely associated with a subvolcanic granite (União do Norte Porphyry) that could have saturated in an residual aqueous fluid phase due to its crystallization; (ii) alunite, although in small concentrations, associated to the occurrences of silica cap; (iii) ore zones hosted in epiclastic sedimentary rocks; (iv) ore zones that often exhibit textures that indicate fluid percolation at shallow crustal level; (v) gold ore associated either to high concentration of base metals and silver; (vi) ore paragenesis dominated by phases rich in sulfides that are indicative of oscillations in the sulfidation state of the sulfur. All these feautures are similar to those found in epithermal polymetallic deposits of intermediate sulfidation. Due to the constant presence of textures that typify the percolation of fluids in shallow crustal level in the inner, proximal and contact regions of the Porphyry North Union, besides the existence of subvolcanic apophyses strongly sericitized and/or silicified, it is proposed that this suite has been responsible by the causative thermal event of gold mineralization associated with base metals at the Francisco deposit. Therefore, it is suggested that the Teles Pires Intrusive Suite, so far known to be barren of gold mineralizations, may have potencial, even if restricted to occurrences of the subvolcanic from this suite, to host gold mineralizations with associated base metals. In addition, the post-collisional setting in which the deposit have been formed would have promoted its preservation from the later erosion, metamorphism and deformation events, which could have affected and destroyed the deposit. The ore precipitation might have taken place by increase in the ¿O2 of the fluid (hematite precipitation), possibly due to influx of oxidizing external fluids (meteoric) after hydraulic fracturing events when the subvolcanic granite had been oversaturated in a residual aqueous fluid phase. The high concentrations of base metals suggest that the variations on the temperature and pH of the fluid could have been an important key in the formation of the mineralized ore zones. In this context, the identified plutonic suites around the Pé Quente and Francisco would have been initially formed before the magmatic event that resulted in the Matupá Intrusive Suite (1.872 ±12Ma), with the emplacement of the Pé Quente suite. With the continuity of the magmatic event, more evolved granitic suites would have been created by the emplacement of the Teles Pires Intrusive Suite (~ 1757 Ma), which represents the later intrusions (União do Norte Porphyry) within a post-collisional setting. Therefore, depending on the tectonic model adopted, all of these suites would have been created during the installation of the magmatic arc Cuiú-Cuiú (2.1-1.9 Ga) and Juruena (1.8-1.75 Ga), or then, during the Ventuari-Tapajós Magmatic Arc (1.95 to 1.8 Ga). In this scenario, the Pé Quente and Francisco deposits could be classified as different mineralizing systems within the general model of gold-porphyry - epithermal, which the emplacement of Paleoproterozoic granitic intrusions may have served as source of heat, fluids and metals to the installation of the magmatic-hydrothermal system. The Pé Quente deposit, for instance, could correspond a system of greater depth and higher temperature, where the strong pervasive albite alteration plus highly oxidized-aqueous and carbonic fluids represent the root zones of porphyry gold deposits. The Francisco deposit, however, could be correlated to mineralization nested in shallow crustal levels with great influx of meteoric fluids and relatively distal from felsic intrusive subvolcanic granite. Therefore, the Francisco deposit could be similar to the polymetallic epithermal deposits of intermediate-sulfidation. / Mestrado / Metalogenese / Mestre em Geociências

Orientador: Roberto Perez Xavier / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociências / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-27T12:52:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Assis_RafaelRodriguesde_D.pdf: 28529636 bytes, checksum: a178f7c0049490d9875ccc010692fdbb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: MINERALIZAÇÕES E FONTE DOS FLUIDOS. A Província Aurífera de Alta Floresta, porção centro-sul do Craton Amazônico, localiza-se entre os limites das províncias geocronológicas Ventuari ¿ Tapajós (1,95-1,8 Ga) e Rio Negro ¿ Juruena (1,8-1,55 Ga), ou entre as províncias tectônicas Tapajós ¿ Parima (2,03-1,88 Ga) e Rondônia ¿ Juruena (1,82-1,54 Ga), a depender do modelo adotado para o cráton. Ela é essencialmente constituída por sequências plutôno-vulcânicas derivadas de diversos arcos vulcânicos amalgamados no decorrer do Paleoproterozóico. No segmento leste da província, na região que compreende as cidades de Peixoto de Azevedo ¿ Matupá ¿ Guarantã do Norte ¿ Novo Mundo (MT), rochas plutônicas e vulcânicas de composição granítica hospedam mais de uma centena de depósitos auríferos concentrados ao longo do Cinturão Peru ¿ União do Norte, de direção NW-SE. Com base na paragênese e estilo do minério, essas mineralizações podem ser agrupadas em três tipologias principais: (1) Au ± Cu disseminados em sistemas graníticos e dominantemente representados por pirita e concentrações variáveis de calcopirita e hematita; (2) Sistemas filonares de Au ± Cu essencialmente constituídos por pirita com calcopirita subordinada; e (3) Au + metais de base confinados a veios e vênulas que truncam sequências vulcano-sedimentares sin- a pós-tectônicas. Neste contexto, três grupos principais de rochas plutônicas podem ser distinguidos: (1) embasamento granítico e granitóides antigos; (2) intrusões graníticas de composição sieno/monzogranítica que hospedam as principais mineralizações auríferas da província; e (3) hospedeiras sub-vulcânicas de composição monzogranítica a tonalítica. No conjunto, essas unidades representam um magmatismo cálcio-alcalino oxidado, hidratado, de médio a alto K, meta- a peraluminoso e ferroso a ligeiramente magnesiano, possivelmente derivado da fusão parcial da crosta inferior (manto metassomatizado) em ambiente de arcos vulcânicos. Embora a principal hospedeira plutônica (Granito Guarantã) exiba importantes características adakíticas, compreende-se que seu magma fonte tenha se formado nas porções profundas da crosta, com plagioclásio instável, mas granada e hornblenda estáveis. Os novos dados U-Pb em zircão (SHRIMP) indicam que as idades de cristalização do embasamento granítico variam de 1.980 ±8,8 Ma (Gnaisse Nova Guarita) a 1.978 ±8,1 Ma (tonalito foliado), enquanto as hospedeiras graníticas teriam se formado entre 1.904 ±4,6 Ma (Granodiorito X1), 1.901 ±6,8 Ma (Tonalito Pé Quente) e 1.863 ±4,8 Ma (Granodiorito Jorge) e as hospedeiras sub-vulcânicas entre 1.774 ±7,5 (Pórfiro União do Norte) e 1.773 ±5,7 Ma (quartzo-feldspato pórfiro X1). Os valores ?Nd(t) (-5,49 a -0.975) e as idades modelo TDM (2,36 a 2,02 Ga) sugerem magmas de derivação mantélica extraídos de fonte paleoproterozóica, em que a cristalização fracionada teria correspondido ao principal vetor de evolução petrogenética e, em menor escala, processos de contaminação crustal. Coletivamente, é proposto que esses litotipos tenham se originado a partir de três estágios magmáticos principais: (1) embasamento granítico e granitóides antigos no Orosiriano; (2) hospedeiras granodiorititicas-tonalíticas durante o Orosiriano tardio; e (3) pórfiros e sub-vulcânicas no Statheriano. Esses eventos estariam respectivamente associados à construção do (A) Arco Magmático Cuiú-Cuiú; (B) Arco Magmático Juruena; e (C) contexto pós-colisional do Arco Magmático Juruena. Neste arcabouço geológico, enquadram-se os depósitos magmático-hidrotermais do Pé Quente, Luizão, X1 e Francisco, correspondentes aos alvos de estudo dessa tese na escala de depósitos. Os depósitos Pé Quente (Suíte Pé Quente, 1,97-1,9 Ga), Luizão (Granito Novo Mundo; 1,97-1,96 Ga) e X1 (Granito Guarantã; 1,9 Ga), representam os principais exemplos de mineralizações de Au ± Cu disseminadas em sistemas graníticos, enquanto o depósito do Francisco (Pórfiro União do Norte; 1,77 Ga) seria o principal representante de mineralizações auríferas filonares associadas a metais de base. As zonas mineralizadas dos depósitos X1 e Luizão estão condicionadas a uma forte alteração fílica (muscovita grossa + quartzo + sulfetos) com abundantes concentrações de pirita, mas variável de calcopirita e hematita. Essas zonas estão circunscritas a uma intensa alteração potássica pervasiva com ortoclásio + microclínio ± hematita. Embora essas alterações também ocorram no depósito Pé Quente, seu minério está temporalmente relacionado tanto a uma alteração sódica precoce quanto à alteração fílica. No depósito do Francisco, contudo, o minério está confinado a veios de quartzo com extensos halos de alteração sericítica com pirita + esfalerita + galena ± calcopirita ±digenita disseminadas. Essas alterações são margeadas por uma forte alteração potássica com ortoclásio ± hematita, a qual está circunscrita a uma ampla zona de alteração propilítica de cunho regional. Assembleias de inclusões fluidas provenientes de cristais de quartzo dos depósitos Pé Quente e X1 indicam a coexistência de duas tipologias principais de fluidos: (1) um fluido aquoso de ampla salinidade (2,1 a 26,1% eq. NaCl) e de baixa a moderada temperatura (126,5°C a 268,4°C), coexistentes com fluidos (2) aquo-carbônicos de baixa salinidade (6,1 a 8,9% eq. NaCl), mas altas temperaturas (251,6° a 334,6°C), indicativas de aprisionamento heterogênio em condições de imiscibilidade em um sistema magmático-hidrotermal profundo. No depósito Luizão, o regime de fluidos é registrado por fluidos (1) aquoso-salinos (33,6-37% eq. NaCl) com temperaturas entre 200° e 280°C; coexistente com (2) fluidos aquosos bifásicos de baixa salinidade (2,5-15% eq. NaCl) e temperatura (95°-185°C), indicativos de processos de separação de fases em nível crustal mais raso quando comparado aos depósitos Pé Quente e X1. E finalmente, no depósito do Francisco, as assembleias de inclusões fluidas indicam fluidos eminentemente aquosos de baixa à moderada salinidade (até 24,7% eq. NaCl) e temperatura (85,3°C a 373,2°C), que exibem grande variação quanto ao grau de preenchimento pela fase de vapor (10-70%), sugestivos de processos de ebulição em nível crustal raso. Adicionalmente, os dados isotópicos para oxigênio, deutério e enxofre indicam forte componente magmática para os depósitos do Pé Quente, Luizão e X1, enquanto que no depósito do Francisco, fluidos eminentemente magmáticos teriam interagido com fluidos externos, possivelmente de origem meteórica. Em virtude das similaridades entre seus principais atributos geológicos, assembleias de inclusões fluidas e dados isotópicos, os depósitos Pé Quente, Luizão e X1 podem ser classificados como similares a depósitos do tipo ouro pórfiro, porém, posicionados em níveis crustais mais profundos do que os clássicos exemplos andinos, enquanto o depósito do Francisco seria equivalente às mineralizações epitermais de sulfetação intermediária. No âmbito dessas mineralizações, são reportadas as primeiras idades Re-Os em sulfetos provenientes das principais zonas auríferas dos depósitos supracitados, assim como as primeiras idades da alteração hidrotermal (40Ar/39Ar) associadas à zona mineralizada do depósito epitermal da província. As idades Re-Os em concentrados de pirita do depósito Pé Quente variam de 1.792 ±9 Ma a 1.784 ±11 Ma (idade modelo: 1.787 ±5,5 Ma), enquanto que para o Luizão elas estão compreendidas entre 1.790 ±9 Ma e 1.782 ±9 Ma (idade modelo: 1.787 ±6,2 Ma). No depósito X1, as idades Re-Os em molibdenita são coincidentes aos casos anteriores: entre 1.787 ±7 Ma e 1,785 ±7 Ma (idade modelo: 1.786 ±5 Ma). No depósito do Francisco, as idades 40Ar/39Ar em alíquotas de sericita oriundas do halo de alteração sericítico fornecem idades entre 1.779 ±6,28 a 1.777 ±6,3 Ma e, portanto, bastante similares aos depósitos disseminados de Au ± Cu. Em adicional, as idades 40Ar/39Ar da alteração fílica do depósito Pé Quente variam de 1.833,6 ±6,2 a 1.830,6 ±6.2 Ma, enquanto que no depósito X1 essas idades estão compreendidas entre 1.733,3 ±6,2 a 1.751,3 ±6,1 Ma. A grande uniformidade isotópica obtida para os depósitos disseminados de Au ± Cu fornece uma excelente idade isocrônica em 1.786 ±1 Ma, com idade modelo em 1.787 ±3,2 Ma, as quais permitem apontar para um único e estreito evento aurífero na Província, centrado no Statheriano e que teria durado aproximadamente 10 Ma. No conjunto, essas idades, portanto, demonstram a contemporaneidade das mineralizações com o alojamento de corpos porfiríticos sub-vulcânicos sin- a pós-colisionais na Província, correlacionados às suítes Colíder (quartzo-feldspato pórfiro X1) e Teles Pires (Pórfiro União do Norte), pertencentes ao terceiro evento magmático da província. Logo, as idades Re-Os diferem substancialmente das idades U-Pb das hospedeiras plutônicas graníticas dos depósitos investigados. Esse fato demonstra não haver qualquer conexão genética entre o plutonismo granítico e processos responsáveis pelas mineralizações auríferas da província, diferentemente dos três eventos auríferos até então propostos para a província: (1) 1,98-1,95 Ga (e.g. depósitos Luizão e Pé Quente); (2) 1,87-1,85 Ga (depósitos X1 e Serrinha) e (3) 1,77-1,79 Ga (depósito do Francisco). Essas idades abrem, portanto, novas perspectivas para a exploração aurífera na Província, visto que unidades vulcânicas e sub-vulcânicas de idade 1,78-1,77 Ga agora se tornam alvos potenciais à exploração / Abstract: The Alta Floresta Gold Province, eastern portion of the Amazon Craton, extends between the Ventuari ¿ Tapajós (1.95 to 1.8 Ga) and Rio Negro ¿ Juruena (1.8 to 1.55 Ga) geochronological provinces, or between the Tapajós ¿ Parima (2.03-1.88 Ga) and Rondônia ¿ Juruena (1.82-1.54 Ga), depending on the model used. The province is mainly composed of arc-type plutono-volcanic sequences amalgamated during the Paleoproterozoic. At the easternmost segment of the province, in region that comprises the districts of Peixoto de Azevedo ¿ Mautpá ¿ Guarantã do Norte ¿ Novo Mundo (MT), a significant number of gold deposits are distributed along a NW-SW striking belt (Peru ¿ União do Norte belt) hosted by plutonic and volcanic rocks of granitic composition. Based on ore and stype paragenesis, these gold mineralizations can be clustered into three main groups: (1) Au ± Cu disseminated within granitic systems and essentially represented by pyrite and variable amounts of chalcopyrite and hematite; (2) Au ± Cu-rich veins mainly composed of pyrite and subordinated chalcopyrite; and (3) vein-type Au + base metals that crosscut sin- to post-collisional volcano-sedimentary sequences. Whitin this context, three major groups of plutonic rocks may be distinguished: (1) basement and old granitoids; (2) granitic intrusions that vary in composition from tonalite to syeno/monzogranite and that host the major gold mineralizations within the province; and (c) subvolcanic hosts of tonalite to monzogranite composition. These units display affinities to the calc-alkaline, oxidized, hydrated, medium to high-K, meta- to peraluminous and ferrous to slightly magnesium (I-type granites), possibly derived from volcanic arc-type setting from partial melting of lower crustal sources (metasomatized mantle). Although the main granite host (Guarantã granite) exhibits an adakite-signature, it is understood that its magma might have been derived from a deep crustal level, with instable plagioclase, garnet and hornblende stable. The new SHRIMP U-Pb zircon ages suggest that the crystallization ages related to the granitic basement range from 1,980 ±8.8 Ma (Nova Guarita gneiss) to 1,978 ±8.1 Ma (foliated tonalite), where those obtained to plutonic granitic host rocks are between 1,904 ±4.6 Ma (X1 granodiorite), 1,901 ±6.8 Ma (Pé Quente tonalite) and 1,863 ±4.8 Ma (Jorge granodiorite), and those related to subvolcanic host rocks vary from 1,774 ±7.5 (União do Norte porphyry) to 1,773 ±5.7 Ma (X1 quartz-feldspar porphyry). The ?Nd(t) (-5.49 to -0.975) and TDM ages (2.36 to 2.02 Ga) are indicative of Paleoproterozoic mantle-derived magmas with fractional crystallization as the main vector of evolution to these lithotyepes, such as crustal contamination in minor importance. Collectively, these lithotypes can be clustered into three main magmatic stages: (1) Orosirian granitic basement and old granites; (2) Late Orosirian granodiorite-tonalite host intrusions; and (3) Statherian porphyries and subvolcanics. These events would related, respectively, the construction of (A) Cuiú-Cuiú magmatic arc; (B) Early Juruena magmatic arc; and (C) Post-collisional Juruena magmatic arc setting. Within this geological context, we have the Pé Quente, Luizão, X1 and Francisco magmatic-hydrothermal gold deposits, the main case of study in this work. The Pé Quente (Pé Quente suite; 1.97-1.9 Ga), Luizão (1.97-1.96 Ga) and X1 (Guarantã granite; 1.9 Ga) deposits represent the major disseminated Au ± Cu mineralization in granitic systems, whereas the Francisco deposit (União do Norte porphyry; 1.77 Ga) would correspond the principal exemple of vein-type gold + base metals. The Luizão and X1 ore-zones are related to a strongly and pervasive phyllic alteration (coarse-grained + quartz + sulfide) wich high concentrations of pyrite but variable chalcopyrite and hematite. These hydrothermal zones are limited by a strong and pervasive potassic alteration with orthoclase + microcline ± hematite. Although these hydrothermal alterations are also found in the Pé Quente deposit, its ore is temporally related both to an early sodic as phyllic alterations. At the Francisco deposit, however, the main ore-zones are restricted to quartz-rich veins with metric sericitic alteration halos (5 to 6 m) with disseminated pyrite + sphalerite + galena ± chalcopyrite ± digenite. Collecvely, these hydrothermal alterations are limited by a regional propylitic alteration. Fluid inclusion assemblages in quartz crystals from X1 and Pé Quente deposits reveal the presence of two types of ?uids: (1) aqueous two-phase inclusions with wide salinity (2.1-26.1 wt.% eq. NaCl) and homogenization temperatures (126.5°C to 268.4°C); and (2) H2O-CO2 inclusions of low salinity (6.1-8.9 wt.% eq. NaCl) and higher temperatures (251.6° to 334.6°C), suggestive of heterogeneous entrapment by immiscibility processes in a deep magmatic-hydrothermal system. At the Luizão deposits, the fluids regime revel the coexistence of two types of aqueous fluids: (1) a high salinity (33.6 to 37 wt% NaCl eq.) fluids represented by halite-bearing fluid inclusions with temperatures that range from 200° to 280°C; and (2) a low salinity (2.5 ¿ 15 wt% NaCl eq.) and lower temperature fluid represented by two-phase inclusions, indicating fluid phase-separation processes at shallower crustal level if compared the Pé Quente and X1 deposits. And finally, at Francisco deposit the fluids are mainly composed of low to moderate salinity (up to 24 wt.% eq. NaCl) and temperature (85.3° to 373.2°C) and salinity aqueous fluid inclusions with heterogeneity in the vapor-phase filling degree (10-70 vol.%), which are suggestive of boiling processes in a shallower crustal leve. Moreover, oxygen, deuterium and sulfur isotope data do indicate a strong magmatic signature to the Pé Quente, X1 and Luizão deposits, whereas in the Francisco deposit, fluids essentially magmatic may have interacted with meteoric fluids. Based on the similarities between the major geological attributes, fluid inclusions assemblages and isotopic data, the Pé Quente, X1 and Luizão deposit can be similar to gold-only, Cu-poor porphyry systems, however, placed within deeper crustal levels than those classically interpreted as andian-type porphyry, whereas the Francisco deposits would be equivalent to polymetallic epithermal deposits of intermediate sulfidation. About these gold mineralizations, this work reports for the first time Re-Os pyrite and molybdenite ages for the Au ± disseminated deposits, such as the firt hydrothermal alteration ages (40Ar/39Ar) related to the ore-zones of the epithermal systems from the province. The Re-Os pyrite ages for the Pé Quente deposit vary from 1,792 ±9 Ma to 1,784 ±11 Ma (model age: 1.787 ±5,5 Ma), whereas those for Luizão deposit are between 1,790 ±9 Ma and 1,782 ±9 Ma (model age: 1,787 ±6.2 Ma). The Re-Os molybdenite ages for X1 deposit are very similar to the previously deposits, because it range from 1,787 ±7 Ma to 1,785 ±7 Ma (model age: 1,786 ±5 Ma). At the Francisco deposit, the 40Ar/39Ar ages from sericite samples from sericitic halo vary from 1,779 ±6.28 to 1,777 ±6.3 Ma, therefore, very similar to those obtained to the Au ± disseminated deposits. Additionally, the 40Ar/39Ar ages to the phyllic alterations from Pé Quente deposit range from 1,833.6 ±6.2 to 1,830.6 ±6.2 Ma, whereas to the X1 deposit these ages are constrained between 1,733.3 ±6.2 to 1,751.3 ±6.1 Ma. The isotopic uniformity of the disseminated Au ± Cu deposits provides an excellent isochronous age at 1.786 ±1 Ma, with model age at 1.787 ±3.2 Ma, suggesting a major and unic Staherian gold metallogenetic event within the Alta Floresta Gold Province that would lasted approximately 10 Ma. These ages allow us to correlate the ore-forming processes with the post-collisional felsic magmatism of the Juruena arc, possibly associated to the emplacement of the Colíder (quartz-feldspat porphyry) and Teles Pires (União do Norte porphyry) suites, belonging to the third magmatic event that took place in the province. Therefore, the Re-Os sulfide ages are substantially different from the U-Pb zircon crystallization ages of the plutonic granitic host rocks. This demonstrates that there is no genetic connection between the emplacement of granitic plutons and the ore-forming processes responsible for the gold mineralization in the province, contrasting, therefore, to the three auriferous events so far proposed to the province: (i) 1.98-1.95 Ga (e.g. Luizão and Pé Quente deposits); (ii) 1.87-1.85 Ga (X1 and Serrinha deposits); and (iii) 1.77-1.79 Ga (e.g. Francisco deposit). These new Re-Os pyrite and molybdenite ages open new perspectives for gold exploration in the province as volcanic and sub-volcanic units of 1.78 to 1.77 Ga now may become prime targets / Doutorado / Geologia e Recursos Naturais / Doutor em Ciências

Orientador: Roberto Perez Xavier / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociências / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-28T02:16:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Trevisan_VeronicaGodinho_M.pdf: 12082378 bytes, checksum: 8a62864dd0b76538367589ff9f11e172 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: O setor leste da Província Aurífera de Alta Floresta, Cráton Amazônico, Brasil, hospeda um grande número de depósitos de ouro na forma de veios, sistemas de veios em stockwork e disseminados associados à sequências plutôno-vulcânicas paleoproterozóicas, incluindo os depósitos filonares de Au + metais base Luiz e Au ± Cu Paraíba e Pezão. Descrição de testemunhos de sondagem, petrografia e geocronologia U-Pb SHRIMP IIe em zircão permitiram a caracterização dos diferentes atributos geológicos desses depósitos. A rocha hospedeira do depósito Paraíba é representada por biotita tonalito, enquanto que nos depósitos Luiz e Pezão corresponde a um biotita granodiorito intrudido por feldspato-pórfiro e sienogranito cortado por quartzo-pórfiro, respectivamente. As zonas de metassomatismo incluem as alterações clorítica, potássica com biotita e sericítica e, em direção aos setores distais, alterações potássica com K-feldspato e propilítica, preenchimento por carbonato, silicificação + preenchimento por quartzo e, vênulas pós-mineralização compostas por quartzo, carbonato, epidoto, sericita e/ou clorita. O veio de quartzo aurífero dos três depósitos apresenta textura maciça, enquanto que nos depósitos Luiz e Pezão é comum a ocorrência de texturas de preenchimento de espaços vazios em veios de quartzo e/ou quartzo + carbonato não mineralizados. As zonas mineralizadas do depósito Paraíba e Pezão são representadas por pirita + calcopirita, enquanto que no depósito Luiz a paragênese do minério é caracterizada por pirita + esfalerita + galena ± calcopirita. O regime de fluidos nas zonas de minério do depósito Paraíba é representado essencialmente por fluidos aquo-carbônicos, enquanto que nos depósitos Luiz e Pezão por fluidos aquosos bifásicos de baixa salinidade. Análises U-Pb SHRIMP IIe em zircão das rochas hospedeiras e feldspato-pórfiro Luiz forneceram idades de cristalização entre 2,01 e 1,97 Ga. A evolução do sistema hidrotermal dos depósitos indica redução da temperatura e incremento da ¿O2 e pH dos fluidos mineralizantes. A precipitação do minério no depósito Paraíba deve estar relacionada com o processo de imiscibilidade e interações fluido-rocha, enquanto que nos depósitos Luiz e Pezão pode ser atribuída a expansão adiabática seguida por boiling. A integração dos dados sugere que o depósito Paraíba se formou em um nível crustal mais profundo, enquanto que os depósitos Luiz e Pezão em níveis crustais mais rasos. A estreita relação espacial com plútons graníticos sugere que os depósitos Paraíba, Luiz e Pezão possam representar sistemas magmático-hidrotermais que se desenvolveram a partir da cristalização de corpos sub-vulcânicos (e.g. pórfiros), considerados com a possível fonte de fluidos, calor e metais para estes sistemas. Neste contexto, o depósito Paraíba pode ser considerado como um sistema filonar rico em ouro-quartzo hospedado por intrusões, enquanto que os depósitos Luiz e Pezão podem representar sistemas mineralizados similares a depósitos epitermais polimetálicos de sulfuração intermediária e rico em ouro-cobre de baixa sulfuração, respectivamente. Embora a idade da mineralização seja ainda desconhecida nos três depósitos, as relações geológicas entre as hospedeiras, os corpos sub-vulcânicos e zonas de minério, combinadas com os dados geocronológicos obtidos neste estudo e disponíveis na literatura, abrem a possibilidade de que a metalogênese do ouro no setor leste da província não esteja restrita a um único evento intrusivo (1.787 ± 3.2 a 1.786 ± 1 Ma), mas apontam para a possível existência de pelo menos dois eventos mineralizantes (~1.78 e ~1.97 Ga). Os dados geocronológicos U-Pb SHRIMP em zircão obtidos neste estudo sugerem a correlação das rochas graníticas hospedeiras com o primeiro evento magmático (1.98 a 1.97 Ga) do setor leste da província, ou mesmo a expansão desse intervalo de idades / Abstract: The easternmost sector of the Alta Floresta Gold Province, Amazon Craton, Brazil, hosts a significant number of disseminated, stockwork and vein-type gold deposits associated with paleoproterozoic plutonic-volcanic sequences, including the Luiz Au + base metals and the Paraíba and Pezão Au ± Cu vein-type deposits. Description of drill cores, petrography and U-Pb sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) IIe zircon geochronology allowed the characterization of the different geological attributes of these three deposits. At the Paraíba deposit the host lithotype is represented by biotite tonalite, whereas at the Luiz and Pezão deposits the host rocks encompass a biotite granodiorite intruded by a feldspar-porphyry and a syenogranite truncated by a quartz-porphyry, respectively. Metasomatic zones include chloritic, sericitic and potassic (biotite) alteration, and, outwards from the ore zones, carbonate infill, silicification plus quartz infill, potassic (K-feldspar) and propylitic alteration, besides post-mineralization quartz, carbonate, epidote, sericite and/or chlorite veinlets. The auriferous quartz veins in all deposits display massive texture, whereas barren quartz and/or quartz + carbonate veins at the Luiz and Pezão deposits commonly display open-space filling textures. Ore zones at Paraíba and Pezão deposits are represented by pyrite + chalcopyrite, whereas at Luiz deposit is characterized by pyrite + sphalerite + galena ± chalcopyrite. Fluid regime at the Paraíba ore zones encompasses aqueous-carbonic fluids, whereas at the Luiz and Pezão deposits are essentially characterized by low salinity two-phase aqueous fluids. U-Pb SHRIMP IIe zircon analysis of host rocks and Luiz feldspar-porphyry provided crystallization ages between 2,01 and 1,97 Ga. The evolution of the hydrothermal systems of these three deposits indicates a decrease in temperature and an increase in ¿O2 and pH of the fluid. Ore precipitation at the Paraíba deposit would be related to a combination of immiscibility process and fluid-rock interactions, while at the Luiz and Pezão deposits can be attributed to adiabatic expansion followed by boiling process. Data integration suggest that the Paraiba deposit may have originated at deeper crustal levels, whereas the Luiz and Pezão deposits would be positioned at shallower crustal levels. The close spatial relationship with granitic plutons suggests that the Paraíba, Pezão and Luiz deposits may be genetically linked to magmatic-hydrothermal systems, which developed as a result of the crystallization of sub-volcanic rocks (e.g. porphyries), considered as the possible source of fluids, heat and metals for these systems. In this context, the Paraíba deposit can be classified as an intrusion-hosted gold-quartz vein system, whereas the Luiz and Pezão deposits may represent mineralized systems similar to intermediate sulfidation polymettalic and low sulfidation gold-copper-bearing epithermal deposits, respectively. Although the mineralization ages are still unknown for these three deposits, the geological relationships between host and sub-volcanic rocks and ore zones, combined with geochronological data from this study and from literature, open the possibility that gold metallogeny within the province is not restricted to a single paleoproterozoic intrusive event (1.787 ± 3.2 to ± 1.786 1 Ma), but point to the possible existence of at least two mineralizing events (~ 1.78 and ~ 1.97 Ga). The U-Pb zircon geochronological data from this study suggest the correlation of the granitic rocks to the first magmatic event (1.98 to 1.97 Ga) in the easternmost portion of the province, or even an expansion of this age interval / Mestrado / Geologia e Recursos Naturais / Mestra em Geociências

This thesis discusses mining cabin sites from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as cultural resources. Special attention is given the concept of "description" in regards to discussion of the resource category, history, and physical attributes of the sites. Evaluation and management suggestions are presented for this particular resource category. To aid in the process of identification of log cabin notching, a typology of notches is developed and presented within the context of the thesis.

No description available.

No description available.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the 20th century, many employees in the South African mining industry were involved in occupational accidents which either resulted in personal injury or had fatal consequences. Despite the introduction of numerous industrial safety programmes to prevent fatal incidents and minor injuries, the South African mining industry death toll remains consistently high, at approximately 200 employees per annum. The trend of employee injury and death continues unabated into the new millennium. This safety performance has been met with growing dissatisfaction in the ranks of government, worker unions, employees and business stakeholders. This dissatisfaction is directed at chief executives who are being blamed for the occupational accidents on their mines. There is now growing focus on the leadership of mining companies and how it contributes to shaping an organisational culture for improved safety performance. The researcher examines whether leadership is a key component in creating a safety conscious organisational culture, and uses literature studies and the Anglo American mining company as a practical case study to support the investigation. Anglo American, listed on the Johannesburg and London stock exchanges is the largest mining company in South Africa and also one in which many fatal injuries have occurred; providing an abundance of safety information. The researcher reviews previous literature studies and explains the journey Anglo American undertook to improve its safety performance since listing on the London Stock Exchange in 1999. The concepts of organisational culture, safety culture, leadership and organisational performance, are discussed from a theoretical and practical perspective using literature studies. These are then examined with the ultimate view of understanding their practical impact on organisational safety as espoused in the literature. The literature provides a broad framework on which to assess Anglo American's safety journey from 1999 to the end of 2007. This journey details the safety programmes and efforts employed by Anglo American to eliminate fatalities and injuries and also highlights the impact of the organisation's leadership on the safety performance of the company. It is concluded that the contribution of leadership is pivotal to establishing a safety-conscious organisational culture and that specific behaviours from executives, senior managers, middle managers, supervisors and workers are needed to develop an organisations safety culture for improved safety performance. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende die 20ste eeu was baie werkers in die Suid-Afrikaanse mynbedryf betrokke in beroepsverwante ongelukke wat tot persoonlike beserings of lewensverlies gelei het. Ten spyte van die instelling van veelvuldige beroeps-veiligheidsprogramme om noodlottige insidente en ander minder ernstige beserings te voorkom, bly die dodetal in die Suid-Afrikaanse mynbedryf konstant hoog, teen ongeveer 200 werkers per jaar. Hierdie tendens van dood en beserings onder werkers gaan ongetem voort tot in die nuwe millennium. Hierdie veiligheidsrekord word met toenemende ontevredenheid deur die regering, werkers-vakbonde, werkers en bedryfsinsethouers beskou. Hierdie ontevredenheid word gemik op uitvoerende bestuur, wie blameer word vir beroepsverwante ongelukke in hul myne. Daar word dus toenemend gefokus op die leierskap van mynmaatskappye en hoe dit bydra tot die skepping van 'n organisasiekultuur van verbeterde veiligheidsuitslae. Die navorser ondersoek die vraag of leierskap 'n kern komponent is in die daarstelling van 'n veiligheids-bewuste organisasiekultuur, en maak gebruik van literatuurstudies sowel as Anglo American mynmaatskappy as 'n praktiese gevallestudie om sy ondersoek te ondersteun. Anglo American is die grootste mynmaatskappy in Suid-Afrika en ook die een waar baie noodlottige ongelukke voorgekom het, en dus 'n groot bron van veiligheidsinligting kan voorsien. Die navorser hersien teoretiese literatuurstudies en verduidelik dan die optrede van Anglo American om sy veiligheidsrekords te verbeter sedert sy noteering op die Londonse Effektebeurs in 1999. Die konsep van organisasiekultuur, veiligheidskultuur, leierskap en organisasieprestasie, word bespreek vanuit 'n teoretiese en praktiese perspektief met behulp van literatuurstudies en hierdie word bestudeer met die uiteindelike doel om die praktiese impak daarvan in industrie te verstaan soos uiteengesit in die literatuur. Die literatuur voorsien 'n breë raamwerk waarteen Anglo American se veiligheidstog gemeet kan word vanaf 1999 tot einde 2007. Hierdie tog verskaf detail van hoe Anglo American veiligheidsprogramme gebruik het om noodlottigge ongelukke en beserings uit te skakel en beklemtoon ook die impak van die organisasie se leierskap op die veiligheidsrekord van die maatskappy. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat die bydrae van leierskap kern is tot die daarstelling van 'n veiligheidsbewuste kultuur en dat spesifieke optredes van hoofbestuurders, seniorbestuurders, middelvlakbestuurders, opsieners en werkers nodig is om 'n veiligheidskultuur te bewerkstellig om veiligheid in maatskappye te verbeter.

Msc. / This study focuses on the functional evaluation of a gold Tailings Storage Facility (TSF), the Fleurhof TSF (designated slimes dam 2L3), which is representative of gold slimes (tailings) dams in the Witwatersrand. The aim is to evaluate the rehabilitation status (in terms of species composition and landscape function) of TSF surfaces that were planted ~20 to ~40 years ago using the most common rehabilitation practice, namely pasture grassing. Pasture grassing aims to obtain rapid dust control. Mine closure was not considered at the time, and the vegetation was hence not designed with ecological processes or long-term objectives in mind. However, over time, grassing practices became routine in the TSF vegetation industry, and the contribution that they have made towards surface rehabilitation needs to be assessed against the current site closure objectives. On the selected site, evaluations of vegetation cover, species composition, and substrate physical and chemical properties were conducted in 1975 (Thatcher, 1979). The aim of the current mid-summer study in 2009 was addressed by assessing the same parameters of vegetation cover, species composition, and soil physical and chemical properties, and comparing these to the results of the previous assessment in 1975. Landscape Function Analysis (LFA – an index-based method of evaluating the retention of resources by surfaces and soil condition), was applied to determine the landscape function (stability, infiltration and nutrient cycling that are derived from the eleven soil surface assessment indicators), and compared with the landscape function of natural analogues in the same locality. Landscape organisation (also an indicator of LFA) was used to investigate the contribution of vegetation overall, and of discrete plant functional groups to landscape functionality. A total of 35 plant species were observed in the quadrats (56 species on the TSF overall), with 51% of species overall being alien. Perennial vegetation and cryptogam covers contributed the most to stabilising the TSF slopes and flat (top) surfaces. The percentage of vegetation basal cover on the TSF (30% – 70%) was lower than for analogue grassland sites on a nearby hill (80% – 100%). Lower basal vegetation cover on the TSF than on the analogue site, were associated with lower LFA indices of stability on all TSF slope aspects (P = 8.19 x 10-13 for all aspects), iii lower nutrient cycling for the northern and southern TSF slopes (south aspect P = 4.20 x 10-6; top aspect P = 0.03), and lower infiltration on the southern slope of the TSF (P = 2.68 x 10-6). However, a higher infiltration on the northern TSF aspect (P = 0.02) than on the analogue site, was attained. Perennial tussock grass patch types (which included perennial forbs) made the largest contribution to the soil surface assessment (SSA) indicators on the TSF and analogue sites, and therefore to the LFA indices that were derived from these SSA indicators. The contribution of woody patches to function was not evaluated.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Remote sensing and vegetation indices were evaluated for its usefulness to monitor the success of the rehabilitation programme of the decommissioned tailings storage facility (TSF1) of the Navachab Gold Mine, Karibib, Namibia. The study aimed to objectively illustrate the rehabilitation progression from tailings (baseline) to soil (capping) and vegetation (planted as well as natural). Baseline data sets of 2004 and 2005 were compared with imagery of 2009, 2010 and 2011. All the images were subjected to panchromatic sharpening using the subtractive resolution merge (SRM) method before georegistration. As no recent accurate topographical maps were available of the study area, the May 2010 image was used as a reference image. All other images were georegistered to this image. A number of vegetation indices (VIs) were evaluated. The results showed that the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the transformed vegetation index (TVI) provided the most promising results. Although the difference vegetation index (DVI) and enhanced vegetation index (EVI) distinguished the vegetation, rock, and soil classes, it was not as successful as the other VIs in classifying the rain water pond. TVI and NDVI were further evaluated for their efficacy in detecting changes. This was done by generating a series of change images and by qualitatively comparing them to false colour images of the same period. Both the NDVI and TVI delivered good results, but it was found that the TVI is more successful when water is present in the images. The research concludes that change analyses based on the TVI is an effective method for monitoring mine rehabilitation programmes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Afstandswaarneming en plantegroei-indekse is ge-evalueer vir die gebruikswaarde daarvan om sukses van die rehabilitasieprogram vir die geslote slykdam of tailings storage facility (TSF1) van die Navachab Goudmyn, Karibib, Namibië vas te stel. Die studie se doelwit was om die progressie in die rehabilitasie van slyk (basislyn) na grond (dekmateriaal) en plantegroei (aangeplant en natuurlik) te illustreer. Basislyndatastelle 2004 en 2005 is vergelyk met 2009, 2010, en 2011 beelde. Al die beelde is panchromaties verskerp deur die subtractive resolution merge (RSM) metode voor georegistrasie uit te voer. Aangesien geen onlangse, akkurate topografiese kaarte van die studiegebied beskikbaar was nie, is die beeld vir Mei 2010 as ‘n verwysingsbeeld gebruik. Al die ander beelde is op die laasgenoemde beeld gegeoregistreer. Die resultate het gewys dat die normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) en die transformed vegetation index (TVI) die mees belowende resultate lewer. Al het die difference vegetation index (DVI) en enhanced vegetation index (EVI) goed onderskei tussen plantegroeiklasse en grond- en gesteentesklasse was dit nie so suksesvol met die klassifikasie van die reënwaterpoel nie. TVI en NDVI is verder geëvalueer vir effektiwiteit om verandering waar te neem. Dit is gedoen deur ‘n reeks van veranderingsbeelde te skep en dit dan kwalitatief met die valskleur-beelde vir dieselfde tydperk te vergelyk. Beide die NDVI en TVI het goeie resultate gelewer, maar die TVI was meer suksesvol om beelde met water te klassifiseer. Die navorsing lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat veranderingsanalises met die TVI ‘n effektiewe metode vir die monitoring van rehabilitasie programme is.

Gold mining in the Witwatersrand Basin of South Africa has resulted in soil contamination due to the lack of sufficient environmental management plans for the tailings dumps and remnant footprints. Tailings reclamation as a strategy of reducing pollution in the Central Rand, for instance, has resulted in contamination of water systems by acid mine drainage (AMD). After removal of the tailings dumps, remnant material is left over on the tailings footprints and these contain significant amounts of pollutants that were initially in the tailings. Heavy rainfall during summer dissolves primary minerals and later in the dry season, secondary minerals are precipitated as efflorescent crusts on and nearby tailings dumps as well as footprints due to high evaporation. The efflorescent crusts can redissolve when it rains and form acidic, metal and sulphate-rich solutions due to their soluble characteristics. This study aimed to characterise tailings footprints in areas targeted for human settlements and office spaces to assess their potential to release left over toxic elements such arsenic (As), lead (Pb), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). The approach to the study involved characterisation of oxidised and unoxidised tailings material and secondary precipitates on both tailings dumps and footprints. This involved determining the mineralogical composition using Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD). Dissolution and leaching studies were also conducted on the material followed by determination of constituent elements using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and sulphates using ion chromatography (IC). The leaching solutions used included rainwater; dilute sulphuric acid at pH of 3.0 (a common leachate in such acidic soils); as well as plant exudates such as oxalic and citric acids. The leachate solutions were used to correlate the mineralogical composition of secondary precipitates and tailings footprints. Potential implications on humans following any accidental ingestion of the tailings or contaminated soils were assessed using gastric juices. The ecological risk factors and risk index together with the model to evaluate daily intake and different pathways to humans were used to assess the toxicity caused by exposure to contaminants in the materials. The experimental work was augmented by computer simulations based on geochemical modelling (using the PHREEQC geochemical modelling code) to determine the speciation of elements (and thus their potential lability and bioavailability), dissolution and formation of secondary mineral precipitates in the tailings dumps and footprints. The findings of the PXRD study showed that the mineralogy of the tailings and footprints was dominated by quartz (SiO2) and some minor minerals such as pyrite (FeS2), pyrophyllite (Al2Si4O10(OH)2), chlorite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10), mica (K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10(F,OH)2) while that of secondary precipitates was dominated by jarosite (KFe3+ 3(OH)6 (SO4)2), goethite (FeOOH), melanterite (FeSO4.7H2O) and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). Minerals obtained for the secondary precipitates were corroborated by geochemical modelling. Leaching results using rainwater with pH ranges from 3.5 to 3.9 showed that trace elements are released very slowly from tailings dumps and footprints and in small concentrations during rainy seasons as follows: As (1.5 mg/L-4.5 mg/L), Pb (3.5 mg/L-5.5 mg/L), Cu (4 mg/L-4.8 mg/L) and Zn (23 mg/L-44 mg/L). The release and mobility of Cu, Pb, Zn and As occurs quite markedly when secondary precipitates dissolve, making the immediate impacted environment unfavourable for plant growth and any habits in the vicinity. This was substantiated by simulated dissolutions and assessment of the resulting elemental speciation that pointed to the elements being distributed in bioavailable forms, implying potential uptake by plants (such as vegetables that may be cultivated on such impacted soils). The model was used to evaluate the daily intake and different exposure pathways and the results showed that children may daily intake 48.4 mg kg-1 day-1 and adults‟ 32.8 mg kg-1 day-1 . After 5 years (1825 days) of exposure more harm may be experienced and findings shows that kids are the most victims on these contaminated sites compared to adults. Both children and adults may absorb low levels of these toxic elements daily and after long time of exposure it may cause disease like cancer in their body which may lead to death. Pathways may be through inhalation and accidentally ingesting tailings soil that contain toxic elements. Drawing from the above findings, it will be important that tailings footprints that have been earmarked as land for development (residential or office space) be thoroughly assessed for potential release of toxic elements and high levels of acidity. Further reclamation aimed at reducing these hazards can then be implemented. / College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)