Chlormequat can be applied to winter barley for growth manipulation with a view to increasing ear number per m<SUP>2</SUP> and hence grain yield, but, reviewing the literature on field trials showed the effects were not consistent. Previous work showed that the grain yield per m<SUP>2</SUP> of winter barley was strongly correlated with the number of grains per m<SUP>2</SUP> which itself was shown to be mostly influenced by the number of ears per m<SUP>2</SUP>. Three agronomic factors, cultivar, sowing date and nitrogen fertiliser, were identified from the literature as important influences on ear production in winter barley. These were therefore considered to have the potential to modify plant response to chlormequat, in terms of ear production, and might thus account for some of the inconsistency of the effect of chlormequat on grain yield in field trials. The intention of these studies was to move towards a description of winter barley production systems into which chlormequat may be integrated to consistently increase grain yield. Because little information was available on the growth, development and grain yield components of field grown modern winter barley cultivars, these attributes were monitored and analysed in detail for a range of modern cultivars grown at two sites in north-east Scotland in the harvest years 1984 and 1985. Tipper and Maris Otter were identified as strongly contrasting cultivars, being good examples of the extremes of the range of growth parameters found. In addition, the analyses identified the extreme importance of high cultivar biomass per plant for the attainment of high cultivar grain yield per plant. Evidence that increases in biomass have already contributed to the higher grain yields of modern cultivars of both spring barley and winter wheat was also found within the literature. The effect of chlormequat at a range of application times in the spring on early and late sowings of Igri, Tipper (low ear production) and Maris Otter (high ear production) was tested. When averaged over all cultivars and sowing dates chlormequat applied prior to stem extension significantly increased the number of ears per m<SUP>2</SUP> in 1983--4 which led to increases in grain yield. In 1984--5 chlormequat applied at the start of stem extension significantly increased the number of grains per ear and significantly increased grain yield; within-plant uniformity, in terms of shoot contribution to grain yield, was also increased. Chlormequat had no consistent effect on the grain yield of the cultivars Igri and Tipper, but did increase the grain yield of both early and late sown Maris Otter by increasing the number of grains per m<SUP>2</SUP>. These higher grain numbers were achieved through consistent increases in the number of ears per m<SUP>2</SUP> which were nearly always associated with increases in the number of grains per ear on the main stem and early primary tillers. These larger sink sizes of Maris Otter followed temporary reductions in shoot height which were offset by compensatory increases in shoot growth. The growth, development and grain yield components of Maris Otter were described in detail with a view to enabling cultivars with similar growth characteristics to be identified. Application of nitrogen fertiliser did not modify the effect of chlormequat on shoot height or shoot dry weight. In these experiments chlormequat increased neither ear number per m<SUP>2</SUP> nor grain number per ear; therefore, the effect of nitrogen application strategy on the ability of chlormequat to increase in sink size could not be evaluated. It was suggested that application of chlormequat to Igri winter barley receiving more than 100 kg N/ha is unlikely to reduce grain yield. These investigations confirmed the extreme importance of high crop biomass for the attainment of high grain yield. The findings of these investigations together with the findings of a re-analysis of advisory service field trial data on the effect of chlormequat on winter barley are discussed in relation to commercial winter barley production. Finally, it is suggested that more consistent increases in grain yield may be achieved by restricting the use of chlormequat for tiller manipulation to cultivars of the Maris Otter type such as Halcyon and Pipkin which are slow developing, produce relatively large numbers of tillers and eventually many ears per plant.

Bibliography :leaves 249-275. / xv, 275 leaves : ill., maps ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Centre for Asian Studies, 1995

Thesis (DTech. degree in Agriculture.)--Tshwane University of Technology, 2010. / Low soil N fertility accounts for poor crop yields in Africa. Additionally, chemical fertilizers use is inadequate due to high cost and unavalability. Because crops grown on such nutrient-poor soils are micronutrient deficient, incorporating N2-fixing legumes into cropping systems can sustainably improve crop yields and micronutrient capture. Nodulated cowpea easily forms symbioses with native rhizobial species, and can potentially fix atmospheric N2 into ecosystems. These bio-fertilization/-fortification traits can increase crop yields and nutrient accumulation in edible plant organs. Field experiments conducted in Ghana and South Africa assessed N2 fixation in cowpea in 2005 and 2006 using the 15N natural abundance technique. The genotypes Vuli-1 and TVu11424 contributed 178 and 198 kg N ha-1 in 2005 and 2006, respectively at Wa. At Manga, IT84S-2246 and TVu11424 fixed 157 and 171 kg N.ha- 1 in 2005 and 2006, while Fahari and IT84S-2246 contributed 182 and 131 kg N ha-1 in 2005 and 2006 respectively, at Taung. The effect of genotype x environment interaction on plant growth and N2 fixation were evaluated at Wa and Manga in Ghana, and Taung in South Africa. Whole-plant dry matter was highest at Manga relatve to Taung. The G x E interaction was significant for biomass yield, symbiotic parameters and grain yield. Fahari produced 3.2 and 2.2- fold more biomass at Manga than at Wa and Taung respectively. All the 25 genotypes derived significantly higher levels of N nutrition from symbiotic fixation at Taung compared to Manga and Wa. vi The relationship between symbiotic N nutrition and photosynthetic carbon assimilation in young fully expanded leaves of cowpea was assessed in Ghana, in 2005 and 2006. Benpila, Glenda, IT86D-1951 in 2005, and Sanzie in 2006, showed high photosynthesis, greater stomatal conductance, high transpiration, and increased water-use efficiency. Symbiotic N contribution was greater in Mchanganyiko, Ngonji and IT86D-2075 in 2005. These data show that where symbiotic legumes derive a large proportion of their N from N2 fixation, photosynthetic C yield is increased as a result of elevated Rubisco Analysis of edible leaves and grain of cowpea genotypes revealed significant differences in mineral concentration. Cowpea genotype IT82D-889 exhibited high concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg and S. Iron concentration in cowpea grain was 137 μg.g-1 in Soronko, while Zn was 65 μg.g-1 in Vuli-1. Leaf concentrations of Cu, Mn, B and Fe were consistently higher in the genotypes Apagbaala, IT84S-2246, Fahari and IT97K-499-39. Compared with spinach, cowpea leaves had 3-fold more Fe which can offer biological solution to micronutrient deficiency in Africa.

Thesis (M. Sc. (Agricultural Management)) -- University of LImpopo, 2002 / Refer to document / NRF (National Research Foundation) and WRC (Water Research Commission)

Este estudo objetivou avaliar o efeito da aplicação de enxofre (S) e o manejo de nitrogênio (N) em cobertura em relação ao rendimento de grãos e qualidade industrial do trigo. Foram conduzidos três experimentos a campo, na safra de inverno 2013, em Capitão Leônidas Marques, Realeza e Santa Isabel do Oeste, estado do Paraná. Utilizou-se a cultivar de trigo CD 150, semeada em resteva de soja. Foi usado o delineamento experimental de blocos ao acaso com três repetições, em esquema fatorial 3x4. Os tratamentos consistiram de duas fontes de enxofre (gesso agrícola, enxofre elementar pastilhado e testemunha, aplicados a lanço no perfilhamento) e formas de aplicação de nitrogênio em cobertura (100% no perfilhamento, 100% no início da elongação, 50% + 50% e testemunha). As doses utilizadas foram de 80 kg ha-1 de S e N, sendo o nitrogênio aplicado na forma de uréia revestida com inibidor de urease (41% de N). As condições climáticas (precipitação pluviométrica e geadas) observadas na condução dos experimentos resultaram em uma baixa média produtiva geral dos experimentos. Em geral, não houve diferenças significativas entre os manejos de N testados em relação ao rendimento de grãos e índice relativo de clorofila, havendo alta correlação direta entre estas variáveis. O uso de enxofre elementar pastilhado incrementou em 16,3% o rendimento de grãos no ensaio de Realeza, comparado à testemunha. As formas de manejo de N em cobertura influenciaram o teor de glúten úmido (GU) e o índice de elasticidade (IE) da farinha, onde destacou-se a aplicação de N em dose única no início da elongação como melhor manejo. Não observou-se aumento na força de glúten (W) em relação às fontes de enxofre e à aplicação de N em cobertura para a cultivar CD 150. O rendimento de farinha foi influenciado positivamente pelo uso de nitrogênio em cobertura (independente o manejo) e pelas fontes de enxofre aplicadas, com vantagem do enxofre elementar pastilhado em relação ao gesso agrícola. A associação entre caracteres agronômicos e parâmetros de qualidade industrial, indicou que os tratamentos com maiores rendimentos de grãos e que apresentam maiores teores foliares de clorofila são determinantes na obtenção de farinhas com maior GU e IE, porém com tendência a obtenção de menor W e baixa extração de farinha. Assim sendo, para a cultivar de trigo CD 150, uma única aplicação nitrogênio em cobertura no início da elongação, assegura boa produtividade de grãos com benefícios a alguns parâmetros de qualidade industrial do trigo. No entanto, os resultados são inconclusivos em relação à utilização das fontes de enxofre em trigo, em virtude das condições climáticas adversas registradas. Orienta-se a condução de novos ensaios com o enxofre elementar pastilhado usado na adubação de base, o que poderia melhorar sua oxidação junto ao solo. Devem ser conduzidos novos estudos em condições à obtenção de maiores rendimentos de grãos e abrangendo outras cultivares de trigo da classe melhorador. / This study aimed to evaluate the effect of sulfur (S) and the management of nitrogen (N) coverage in relation to grain yield and Wheat industrial quality. Three experiments were conducted in the field, on winter 2013 season, in Captain Leônidas Marques, Realeza and Santa Isabel do Oeste, Paraná state. In all the three places were used the wheat cultivar CD 150, sown in the straw of wheat. We used the experimental of randomized blocks with three replications in a 3x4 factorial design. The treatments consist of two sulfur sources (gypsum and elemental sulfur patched, applied by throwing at tillering, witness) and forms of nitrogen application in coverage (100% at tillering; 100% in the elongation and 50% + 50%, Witness). The doses used are 80 kg ha-1 S and N, being the nitrogen applied in the urea form coated with inhibitor of urease (41% of N). The Weather conditions (rainfall and frost) observed in the conduct of experiments resulted in a general productive low average of experiments. It was observed, in general, no significant differences between the N management tested for grain yield (RG) and relative chlorophyll index (IRC), there is high direct correlation between these variables. The use of elemental sulfur patched increased by 16.3% grain yield testing in Realeza, compared to witness. The forms of management of N in coverage positively influenced the wet gluten content (GU) and the elastic índex (IE) the flour, where stood out the application of N a single dose at the beginning of elongation and better management. There wasn’t have an increase in gluten strength (W) in relation to sources of sulfur and to N coverage for cultivate CD 150. The flour yield was positively influenced by the use of nitrogen in coverage (independent of management) and the applied sulfur sources with the advantage elemental sulfur patched in relation to agricultural plaster. The association between agronomic traits and industrial quality parameters indicated that treatment with higher grain yields and have higher foliar chlorophyll are crucial in obtaining flour with higher GU e IE but with a tendency towards a lower and low extraction flour. Therefore, for the cultivate CD 150 wheat, just one application of nitrogen in coverage in elongation ensures good grain yield benefits to some Wheat quality parameters. However, the results are inconclusive regarding about the use of sulfur sources in wheat, due to adverse weather conditions recorded. The conduction of new tests with elemental sulfur patched used at the base of fertilization is oriented, which could enhance oxidation at ground. Further studies should be conducted in a position to higher grain yields and covering other wheat cultivars enhancer class.

CAPES / O sistema plantio direto foi um grande avanço para a agricultura brasileira, promovendo benefícios por meio da manutenção de resíduos vegetais em superfície do solo. No entanto, verifica-se uma predominância na utilização de aveia como planta de cobertura de inverno, antecedendo cultivos comerciais de verão. Apesar de proporcionar o aporte de elevadas quantidades de resíduos, esta espécie não é preferencial, devido à elevada relação C:N, para anteceder o cultivo de milho, cultura que ocupa grandes áreas de lavouras na região Sudoeste do Paraná. Dessa forma, objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de diferentes plantas de cobertura do solo, antecedendo a cultura do milho, na presença e ausência de adubação nitrogenada, em plantio direto, nas condições edafoclimáticas da região Sudoeste do Paraná. Foi desenvolvido um experimento, com acompanhamento durante dois anos agrícolas (2010/2011 e 2011/2012) em área experimental da Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. O delineamento foi de blocos ao acaso, em parcelas subdivididas, com três repetições. As parcelas principais foram constituídas por oito culturas de cobertura do solo, sendo elas: Aveia preta, Azevém, Centeio, Ervilhaca comum, Tremoço branco, Nabo forrageiro e consórcios entre Aveia+Ervilhaca (A+E) e Aveia+Ervilhaca+Nabo (A+E+N) e nas subparcelas, duas doses de adubação nitrogenada (0 e 180 kg ha-1 de N) na cultura do milho. Foram realizadas avaliações quanto ao desenvolvimento, produção, decomposição e liberação de N pela matéria seca (MS) das plantas de cobertura. No milho, além das características agronômicas, foram avaliados os teores de N presente na biomassa, folha bandeira e grãos. No solo, realizaram-se avaliações da atividade respiratória e acompanhamento do N inorgânico (N-NH4 + e N-NO3-) liberados durante a decomposição dos resíduos. Verificou-se na safra 2010/2011 que a relação C:N dos sistemas contendo leguminosas solteiras, foram estatisticamente inferiores às gramíneas puras. A maior taxa de decomposição dos resíduos ocorreu com a utilização isolada de ervilhaca comum. No entanto, ambas leguminosas proporcionaram maior liberação de N. A utilização de adubação nitrogenada no milho, promoveu maior rendimento de grãos, não havendo influência das culturas de cobertura. Para a safra 2011/2012, observou-se o maior rendimento de MS com a utilização da aveia preta (4,7 Mg ha-¹) não se diferindo das demais gramíneas e dos consórcios. A menor taxa de decomposição ocorreu com o uso de aveia preta, em cultivo isolado. O consórcio A+E+N apresentou a segunda maior liberação de N, atrás apenas da ervilhaca comum. As leguminosas e a brássica (nabo forrageiro), em cultivos isolados, sem adição de N-mineral, proporcionam rendimento de grãos similares a adição da dose com 180 kg ha-¹ de N em cobertura. / The tillage system was a great advancement for the Brazilian agriculture, promoting benefits by maintaining crop residue on the soil surface. However, there is an predominance in the use of oat cover crop of winter, preceding summer commercial crops. Despite providing the input of large amounts of waste, this species is not preferred due to the high C: N ratio, to precede the cultivation of corn, crop that occupies large areas of crops in the southwest region of Paraná. This work aimed to evaluate the effect of different ground cover plants, preceding corn crop in the presence and absence of nitrogen fertilizer, no-till, soil and climatic conditions in the Southwestern region of Paraná. An experiment was conducted with accompaniment during two years (2010/2011 and 2011/2012) in the experimental area of the Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos. The experimental design was a randomized block, split plot design with three replications. The main plots consisted of eight soil cover crops, which were: black oat, ryegrass, rye, vetch common, white lupins, forage turnip and consortium among Oat+Vetch (O+V) and Oat+Vetch+Turnip (O+V+T) and subplots, with two levels of nitrogen fertilization (0 and 180 kg N ha-1) in the corn crop. Evaluations were made regarding the development, production, decomposition and liberation N by dry matter (DM) of cover crops. In corn, beyond agronomic traits were evaluated in the total N present in biomass, flag leaf and in the grain. In the soil, there were evaluations and monitoring of respiratory activity of inorganic N (N-NH4 + and N-NO3-) released during decomposition of residues. Was found in the 2010/2011 season that the C:N ratio systems containing single legumes were statistically lower than pure grasses. The highest rate of waste decomposition occurred with the isolated use of vetch. However, both of legumes provided greater release of N. The use of mineral Nfertilization in corn, promoted higher yield, with no influence of cover crops. For the 2011/2012 season, there was the highest DM yield with the use of oat (4.7 Mg ha-¹) not differing from the other grasses and consortium. The lowest rate of decomposition occurred with the use of oats, in isolated culture. The consortium O+V+T presented the second highest N release, behind only the common vetch. Legumes and brassicas (turnip), isolated in cultures without addition of mineral N, provide yield similar addition of 180 kg N ha-¹ in coverage.

Estudos investigando cultivares históricas de trigo estão amplamente disponíveis e revelam ganhos anuais significativos no rendimento de grãos (RG) em inúmeros países produtores, enquanto alguns relatam recente decréscimo no progresso genético. Nesse sentido, a avaliação dos ganhos inerentes aos programas de melhoramento surge como uma ferramenta de medida de eficiência e pode auxiliar na definição de estratégias futuras. Assim, o primeiro estudo desta dissertação objetivou mensurar o progresso genético para o RG obtido no programa de melhoramento de trigo da Cooperativa Central de Pesquisa Agrícola (Coodetec) através da avaliação anual de linhagens em ensaios de valor de cultivo e uso (VCU). Foram utilizados dados de 836 experimentos, conduzidos 40 locais, no período de 2004 a 2013. Cada ensaio foi composto por 25 tratamentos (genótipos), incluindo linhagens e cultivares testemunhas, conduzidos em três repetições, em delineamento do blocos completos ao acaso. A análise REML/BLUP foi utilizada para obtenção dos valores genotípicos, os quais foram empregados na estimação do progresso genético por método semelhante ao descrito por Vencovsky et al. (1986). O progresso genético global do programa de melhoramento foi de 61,59 kg ha-1 ano-1 (1,68% ano-1), porém, foi parcialmente contrabalanceado por efeitos negativos de ambiente (-22,19 kg ha-1 ano-1; -0,58% ano-1). O progresso genético por região de VCU oscilou entre 31,38 kg ha-1 ano-1 (VCU 4) e 115,33 kg ha-1 ano-1 (VCU 1). Em cultivares comerciais lançadas entre 1998 e 2014, foi obtido progresso genético de 1% ano-1. O segundo estudo objetivou a avaliação do mesmo programa de melhoramento, porém, quanto a caracteres determinantes da qualidade industrial de trigo. Foram utilizados dados de dois locais do estado do Paraná (Cascavel e Palotina). A série histórica estudada compreendeu 8 anos (2005 a 2012) e 458 genótipos, incluindo linhagens e cultivares testemunhas. Foram utilizados os seguintes caracteres no estudo: força de glúten (W), tenacidade (P), extensibilidade (L) e número de queda (NQ). Foi observada a tendência de desequilíbrio na relação P/L, em decorrência de o ganho genético em P ser positivo (2,11% ano-1) e L negativo (-0,93% ano-1). O progresso genético foi de 1,30% ano-1 em W, refletindo os esforços do programa de melhoramento no incremento da qualidade industrial. O terceiro estudo objetivou a comparação de métodos de avaliação da estabilidade e adaptabilidade em trigo, com vistas a obtenção de metodologias essenciais. Foram utilizados dados de RG de 22 genótipos de trigo avaliados em três locais (Guarapuava, Cascavel e Abelardo Luz), durante duas safras agrícolas (2012 e 2013), totalizando seis ambientes. Em cada ensaio foi empregado o delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, com três repetições. Na avaliação da interação genótipo vs. ambiente (IGA), foram utilizadas metodologias baseadas em modelos mistos, análise de variância, regressão linear, análises multivariadas e não paramétricas. Na seleção de genótipos estáveis e de alto RG, é indicada a utilização do método da média harmônica da performance relativa dos valores genéticos preditos (MHPRVG) baseado em modelos mistos, em associação com as análises gráficas GGE biplot, pela capacidade de inferir sobre ambientes, genótipos e suas relações. / Studies investigating historical cultivars of wheat are widely available and show significant annual gains in grain yield (GY) by many producing countries, while some report recent decrease in genetic progress. In this sense, the evaluation of the gains inherent to breeding programs appears as a measurement tool of efficiency and can help define future strategies. Thus, the first study of this dissertation aimed to measure the genetic progress for GY obtained in wheat breeding program of the Central Cooperative Agricultural Research (Coodetec) through the annual evaluation of lines on value of testing and use trials (VCU). We used data from 836 experiments, conducted in 40 locations in the 2004-2013 period. We used the REML/BLUP analysis to access the genotypic values, which were used to estimate the genetic progress by the similar method described by Vencovsky et al. (1986). The overall genetic progress of the breeding program was 61.59 kg ha-1 yr-1 (1.68% yr-1), however, was partially counterbalanced by negative environmental effects (-22.19 kg ha-1 yr-1; -0.58% year-1). The genetic progress by VCU region ranged from 31.38 kg ha-1 yr-1 (VCU 4) and 115.33 kg ha-1 yr-1 (VCU 1). In commercial cultivars released between 1998 and 2014, we obtained genetic progress equal to 1% yr-1. The second study aimed to evaluate the same breeding program, but for wheat industrial quality traits. We used data from two cities of Paraná state (Cascavel and Palotina). The historical series consisted of eight years (2005 to 2012) and 458 genotypes, including lines and cultivars. The following characters were used in the study: gluten strength (W), tenacity (P), extensibility (L) and falling number (FN). We found tendency of disequilibrium in P/L ratio, due to the genetic gain in P be positive (2.11% yr-1) and L be negative (-0.93% yr-1). The genetic progress was 1.30% yr-1 in W, reflecting the efforts of the breeding program to increase the wheat industrial quality. The third study aimed to compare methods of evaluation of the stability and adaptability in wheat, in order to identifying essential methodologies. We used GY data from 22 wheat genotypes evaluated in three locations (Guarapuava, Cascavel and Abelardo Luz) for two growing seasons (2012 and 2013), totaling six environments. The experimental design used in each experiment was a randomized complete block design with three replications. In the evaluation of genotype vs. environment interaction (GEI), methodologies were used based on mixed models, analysis of variance, linear regression, multivariate and non-parametric analysis. To selecting stable genotypes with high GY is indicated using the method of the harmonic mean of the relative performance of genetic values (MHPRVG) based on mixed models in association with the graphical analysis GGE biplot, due to the ability to infer about environments, genotypes and their relationships.

Thesis (M. Sc. Agriculture (Agronomy)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) is an important grain legume crop in tropical and subtropical countries, where it provides a cheap source of protein. Smallholder farmers in Limpopo Province cultivate landraces of pigeonpea, which are characterised with late maturity, low grain yield and being sensitive to photoperiod. To increase the productivity of the cropping system involving pigeonpea, several earlymedium maturity varieties have been introduced. However, performance of the varieties has not been tested in strip intercropping in Limpopo Province. Farmers plant these landraces by using mixed intercropping without definite row arrangement. This practice does not optimise plant density; it hinders farm inputs application and is characterised producing low yields. Therefore, the inclusion of early maturing varieties of pigeonpea in an intercrop will enable farmers to select the best variety for planting in future and thus enhance their output as well as their productivity. The objectives of this study were to assess the agronomic performance of five pigeonpea varieties in pigeonpea-maize strip intercropping, to determine the effect of strip intercropping on maize yield and establish the effect of location and season variations on the performance of both component crops under the intercropping system. Experiments were conducted at the University of Limpopo Experimental Farm (UL Farm) and Ga-Thaba village during the 2015/16 and 2016/17 season. Five improved early-medium maturing pigeonpea varieties (ICEAP 001284, ICEAP 00604, ICEAP 87091, ICEAP 00661 and ICEAP 01101-2) from ICRISAT were evaluated under strip intercropping with maize cultivar PAN 6479. The varieties were selected as earlymedium maturing varieties from previous pigeonpea trials. The trials were laid in a split plot design. The main plot comprised cropping systems (intercrop and monocrop), while the subplot comprised the varieties with three replications. Data collected on pigeonpea were number of days to 50% flowering and 90% maturity number of primary branches; plant height (cm); number of pods per plant; pod length (cm); number of seed per pod; hundred seed weight (g); and grain yield (kg ha-1), whereas on maize, number of days to 50% tasselling and silking; plant height (cm); cob length (cm); cob per plant; grain yields (kg ha-1); and stover (kg ha-1) were recorded. LER was calculated to determine intercropping productivity. Data analysis was done using Statistic 10.0; and Least Significance Difference (LSD) was used to separate the means that showed significant differences at an alpha level of 0.05. The results revealed significant differences in nearly all pigeonpea variables expect (pod length, number of seed per pod and hundred seed weight). Variables that showed significant differences in maize were plant height, cob length, grain yields and stover. Number of days to 50% flowering and 90% physiological maturity differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) among varieties at the UL Farm and Ga-Thaba. Varieties (ICEAP 001284 and ICEAP 00604) exhibited the shortest number of days to 50% flowering and 90% maturity in both locations during both seasons. The interaction between variety x season (V x S) showed significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences in pigeonpea grain yield. The top yielders during 2015/16 at the UL Farm were ICEAP 01101-2 (1555 kg ha-1) and ICEAP 001284 (1280 kg ha-1), while during the 2016/17 season, they were ICEAP 001284 (937 kg ha-1) and ICEAP 01101-2 (912 kg ha-1). High yielder at Ga-Thaba during the 2016/17 season were ICEAP 001284 and ICEAP 01101-2 with grain yields of 671 kg ha-1 and 627 kg ha-1, respectively. Furthermore, varieties that obtained high yields during the 2015/16 season were ICEAP 001284 (504 kg ha-1) and ICEAP 00604 (541 kg ha-1). Most of the varieties during both seasons at the UL Farm and Ga-Thaba yielded more than 500 kg ha-1 under strip intercropping as compared to mixed intercropping, which obtained yields averages of below 400 kg ha-1. The highest maize grain yields of 1450 kg ha-1 were recorded during 2015/16 as compared to 958 kg ha1 during the 2016/17 season at the UL Farm. The calculated total Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) for the two crops in both locations gave positive and higher than 1 values, which suggests a favourable grain yield advantage for maize-pigeonpea strip intercrop over mixed intercropping. Key words: Cajanus cajan, maize, cropping system, maturity, grain yields, land equivalent ratio

Thesis (M.Sc. (Horticulture)) --University of Limpopo, 2009 / Field experiments were conducted at the University of Limpopo experimental farm, Syferkuil during 2005/06 and 2006/07 production seasons. This was initiated to examine the effect of leaf removal on cowpea biomass, protein content and grain yield under sole and binary cultures. Treatments consisted of cowpea varieties (Pan 311 and Red caloona), cropping systems (sole and intercropping) and cowpea-leaf pruning regimes (pruning and un-pruned). Sweet corn was planted, as a component crop in the intercropped plots while sole sweet corn plot was included as a treatment. All treatment combinations were laid out as Randomize complete block design (RCBD) with four replicates. Supplementary irrigation was carried out during the plant growth period. Fully expanded leaves were harvested once on all cowpea plants in the two middle rows from designated plots at seven weeks after planting for each year. Growth and yield data were collected from component crops during the course of the trial while the protein content of harvested leaves and immature pods as well as the different cowpea plant parts at harvest were determined. Results of the study revealed that leaves of cowpea variety, Pan 311 harvested prior to the reproductive stage had significantly higher protein content than those of Red caloona. Protein content of immature Pan 311 pods had higher (18.8 to 25.1%) than Red caloona (17.9 to 20.7%) during both planting seasons. The percent protein content of cowpea stem obtained at harvest for Pan 311 varied between 9.3 and 9.4%, and between 9.9 and 12.3% for Red caloona during both planting seasons. Grain yield obtained for Pan 311 and Red caloona were 1703.7 kg ha-1 and 1479.8 kg ha-1, respectively during 2005/06 and 1290.7 kg ha-1 and 511.7 kg ha-1 respectively during 2006/07 planting seasons. Sweet corn intercropped with Red caloona during both planting seasons had higher average grain yield than when intercropped with Pan 311. Although intercropping decreased the partial land equivalent ratio (LER) value of individual component crops, the combined LER values of between 1.1 and 2.3 under intercrop for the different treatment combinations implies that the practice is advantageous. The results of post harvest soil analyses revealed that topsoil has the pH value of 7.11-7.29 indicating neutral soil while subsoil pH value of 6.27-6.91 indicated slightly acidic to neutral soil during both planting seasons. Based on the findings of this study, cowpea variety Pan 311 can be recommended as a better vegetable crop than Red caloona since it has higher leaf and immature pod protein content. It also had higher grain yield than Red caloona when intercropped with sweet corn. Sweet corn had high grain yield when intercropped with Red caloona than when intercropped with Pan 311. Keywords: Cropping systems, protein content, grain yields, leaf pruning and cowpea.

Climate change threatens global food security by increasing extreme-weather shocks and reducing the productivity of major global crops. While recent research has highlighted the risk of rising extreme heat, comparatively little is known about how the intensity distribution of rainfall, and rainfall’s interactions with heat, influence global crops. Further, as the broader climate transition gains momentum, the industrial activities needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change will emit CO₂. These emissions remain unquantified and largely ignored in research and policy, and thus present an under-assessed risk to crops and society at large.This thesis advances the understanding of present and future agricultural risks from two aspects of hydroclimatic complexity: hourly rainfall intensity and temperature-moisture (T-M) couplings. Both aspects are expected to shift under climate change, with highly uncertain crop impacts. It further simulates the adaptation and mitigation emissions embedded in the broader climate transition, illuminating a previously under-appreciated benefit of enhance climate ambition. Climate warming is expected to intensify rainfall, decreasing the frequency of drizzle while boosting heavy and extreme events. I show that surprisingly heavy rainfall is optimal for US maize and soy yields, with yield loss due to drizzle and very extreme downpours. As a result, the future concentration of rainfall into fewer, heavier hourly events will benefit crop yields 2-3%, partly offsetting larger damages from warming. T-M couplings arising from land-air interactions and atmospheric circulation may shift under 21st Century warming, altering the likelihood of concurrent heat and drought extremes, with uncertain risks to crops. I demonstrate that maize and soy grown in regions with strong T-M couplings historically suffered enhanced crop sensitivity to heat. These couplings will strengthen over most of global croplands this century, worsening the impact of warming on crops by 5% globally, with large regional variations. The energetic demands of the broader climate transition – such as steel for wind turbines, and concrete for coastal barriers – will initially be satisfied by fossil fuels. I show that simulated mitigation and adaptation will emit 185GtCO₂ by 2100 under a transition path consistent with current policies (~2.7°C warming by 2100), equivalent to half the remaining carbon budget for 1.5°C. However, these emissions can be reduced by 90% under a 1.5°C transition path, a previously unidentified co-benefit of enhanced climate ambition.