O óxido nitroso (N2O) é o terceiro gás de efeito estufa natural mais importante no planeta Terra, suas emissões são provenientes, principalmente da atividade bacteriana em processos de nitrificação e desnitrificação. Este estudo foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de elucidar a contribuição da Bacia Amazônica nas emissões de N2O nos anos de 2010 e 2011. A quantificação do N2O foi realizada por meio da coleta do ar atmosférico utilizando aviões de pequeno porte que descreveram um perfil vertical da superfície até 4,4 km de altitude, em quatro locais, posicionados de tal forma na Bacia Amazônica, que possibilitasse um estudo que a representasse regionalmente. O fluxo de N2O foi estimado utilizando-se o método de integração de coluna que consiste na determinação da concentração deste gás, subtraído das concentrações de entrada do continente, levando-se em consideração o tempo que as massas de ar levaram da costa brasileira até o local de coleta. Foi determinada a emissão de N2O pela queima de biomassa, utilizando a razão CO:N2O, determinada nos perfis amostrados durante a estação de queima de biomassa. A Amazônia apresentou um caráter emissor para N2O, com uma emissão maior em 2010 de 3,84 TgN2O ano-1 e de 1,93 TgN2O ano-1 em 2011. Este comportamento provavelmente é resultante do efeito da temperatura mais elevada em 2010 do que 2011. / Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the third most important natural greenhouse gas on planet Earth, it emissions are provided, mainly from bacterial activity during process of nitrification and denitrification. This study was developed with the goal to elucidate the Amazon Basin contribution on N2O emissions during the years of 2010 and 2011. N2O quantification was performed by collecting atmospheric air using small aircraft that described a vertical profile from surface until 4,4 km of altitude, in four sites, positioned over the Amazon Basin so we could study it whole. The flux was estimated through column integration method, which consists in determine N2O subtracted from background concentrations and taking into account the time these air masses spent between the coast and the sampling sites. To determine N2O biomass burning contribution, the CO:N2O ratio was estimated at the dry season profiles. The Amazon presented an emission behavior for N2O, 3,84 TgN2O year-1 in 2010 and 1,93 TgN2O year-1 in 2011. This behavior is resulted by higher temperatures effects in 2010 than 2011.

Este estudo teve como objetivo a determinação da concentração de entrada dos Gases de Efeito Estufa (GEE) no ar proveniente do Oceano Atlântico na região norte/nordeste da costa brasileira e o entendimento da origem destas massas de ar e o padrão circulatório e sua sazonalidade. Esta parte do litoral corresponde à área em que as massas de ar adentram no continente, antes de chegar à Bacia Amazônica. Em 2010 foram iniciados estudos em dois locais na costa, Salinópolis, no estado do Pará e Natal, no Rio Grande do Norte. Amostras de ar foram coletadas em superfície semanalmente e foram analisadas no Laboratório de Química Atmosférica do IPEN, quantificando-se os gases: dióxido de carbono (CO2), metano (CH4), óxido nitroso (N2O), hexafluoreto de enxofre (SF6) e monóxido de carbono (CO). Os resultados obtidos mostraram que Salinópolis (SAL) apresenta maior sazonalidade, entre as estações climáticas, quando comparada a Natal (NAT), sendo essa observação confirmada pelas trajetórias retrocedentes das massas de ar, para cada local de estudo. Observou-se que SAL recebe massas de ar, tanto do Oceano Atlântico Norte, como do Sul (dependendo da época do ano), e em NAT, as massas de ar são originárias apenas do Oceano Atlântico Sul. Este comportamento está relacionado com a zona de convergência intertropical. Os resultados de uma maneira geral mostram a ocorrência de um crescimento nas concentrações médias obtidas em SAL e NAT com o passar dos anos, acompanhando o crescimento mundial. A concentração média para o principal GEE, CO2, em SAL nos anos de 2010, 2011 e 2012 foi de 388,01, 390,39 e 392,14 ppm, respectivamente, e em NAT foi de 388,59, 389,65 e 392,59 ppm respectivamente. / This study had the objective to determinate the background concentrations of Greenhouse Gases in the air from Atlantic Ocean in the north/northeast region of the Brazilian coast and understanding the origin of these air masses and circulatory pattern and seasonality. This region of the coast corresponds to the zone where the air masses pass through before to arrive in Amazon Basin. Studies were started in 2010, in two sites of the coast, Salinópolis in Pará state and Natal in Rio Grande do Norte state. The air samplings were performed on the surface weekly and analysed in the Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory of IPEN, quantifying concentrations of the gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and Carbon monoxide (CO). The obtained results showed that Salinópolis (SAL) have higher seasonality, among climatic seasons, in comparison to Natal (NAT), being this observation confirmed by backward trajectories of air masses to each studied site. SAL received air masses from the North and South Atlantic Ocean, and NAT the air masses arrived only from the South Atlantic Ocean. This behavior, is related with the intertropical convergence zone position. The results, in general, showed an increase of mean GHG concentrations in SAL and NAT along the years, following global growth. The mean concentration of the main GHG, CO2, in SAL to 2010, 2011 and 2012 was 388.01, 390.39 and 392.14 ppm, respectively, and in NAT it was 388.59, 389.65 e 392.59 ppm, respectively.

A Amazônia desempenha um papel importante no ciclo global de carbono, tanto na troca, quanto no armazenamento do carbono, pois contém a maior área de floresta tropical, cerca de 50% do total. Além dos processos naturais, desmatamento e manejo do solo também são fontes de CO2. A Floresta Tropical Amazônica também representa uma significante fonte de óxido nitroso (N2O) através de processos do solo, e de metano (CH4), o qual é emitido em altas taxas em regiões alagadas. Este projeto é parte integrante do Experimento de Grande Escala entre a Biosfera e a Atmosfera da Amazônia (LBA), denominado “Perfis Verticais de Dióxido de Carbono e outros Gases Traço sobre a Bacia Amazônica usando Aviões de Pequeno Porte”. A partir de dezembro de 2000, perfis verticais de gás carbônico (CO2), metano (CH4), óxido nitroso (N2O) e hexafluoreto de enxofre (SF6), além de monóxido de carbono (CO) e hidrogênio molecular (H2), têm sido medidos sobre a Amazônia Central. Os locais escolhidos para amostragem foram a Floresta Nacional do Tapajós, no estado do Pará, por já existir uma torre de medida de fluxo de CO2, e uma área a leste impactada por atividades de pecuária e agricultura, para comparar a influência de uma área impactada com uma área preservada; e a Reserva Biológica de Cuieiras, no estado do Amazonas, onde também existe uma torre de medida de fluxos de CO2 e uma área a leste distante de atividades antrópicas, para comparar com a Reserva. As coletas foram realizadas em perfis verticais de 300 a 4000 m de altitude, com o auxílio de duas malas semi-automáticas desenvolvidas pela NOAA e um avião de pequeno porte. Para a análise dos perfis, foi utilizado o sistema MAGICC (Multiple Analysis of Gases Influence Climate Change) instalado no laboratório de Química Atmosférica (LQA) do IPEN (Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares). Os resultados mostraram que todos os gases estudados, exceto o gás H2, apresentaram o mesmo comportamento observado em estações de monitoramento mundial. No Estado do Pará, em geral, todos os anos estudados foram discretos sumidouros de CO2. Para a comparação entre as Estações Secas e Chuvosas, removeu-se a influência global subtraindo os valores observados para o mesmo período na Ilha de Ascension, das concentrações observadas nos locais estudados. Assim, na comparação entre as Estações Chuvosas de 2004 e 2005 com a Seca de 2004, foi observado que as Estações Chuvosas apresentaram concentrações de CO2 maior em 2 ppm que na Estação Seca 2004. No Estado do Amazonas, os perfis coletados na Estação Chuvosa apresentaram comportamento de fonte, com diferença entre acima e abaixo da CLP (Camada Limite Planetária) de 10 ppm. As concentrações nos locais estudados foram superiores às observadas na Ilha de Ascension. As concentrações de metano apresentaram valores superiores em 80 ppb e 25 ppb sobre os Estados do Pará e do Amazonas, respectivamente, em relação à Ascension. Durante as Estações Secas foram observadas maiores concentrações de metano em relação às Estações Chuvosas estudadas. O gás N2O apresentou comportamento das concentrações observadas no Estado do Pará semelhante ao observado sobre Ascension até 2003, ano em que a concentração deste gás na região Amazônica começou a apresentar aumento gradativo, mostrando a influência de adubação de áreas agrícolas em regiões próximas. Sua concentração foi semelhante nos dois estados estudados, apresentando discreta fonte nas Estações Chuvosas estudadas nos quatro locais. A concentração observada do gás SF6 foi semelhante à global, e ligeiramente maior no Estado do Amazonas em relação ao Estado do Pará, sugerindo diferentes origens das massas de ar. As concentrações de CO, sobre o Estado do Pará e do Amazonas, foram maiores abaixo da CLP e apresentaram cerca de 130 ppb e 150 ppb, respectivamente, a mais na Estação Seca devido aos processos de queimada. A maior média de concentração foi observada no Estado do Amazonas, o que também sugere diferentes origens de massas de ar, uma vez que não há ação antrópica em locais próximos ao amostrado neste estado. O gás H2 apresentou comportamento semelhante ao CO nas Estações Secas estudadas. O Estado do Amazonas desempenhou papel de sumidouro deste gás em todo o período estudado e o Estado do Pará desempenhou papel de sumidouro apenas na Estação Chuvosa. / The Amazon plays an important role on the global carbon cycle, as changing as carbon storage, since Amazon Basin is the biggest area of tropical forest, around 50% of global. Natural’s process, deforestation, and use land are CO2 sources. The Amazon forest is a significant source of N2O by soil process, and CH4 by anaerobic process like flooded areas, rice cultures, and others sources. This project is part of the LBA project (Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazônia), and this project is “Vertical profiles of carbon dioxide and other trace gas species over the Amazon basin using small aircraft”. Since December 2000 vertical profiles of CO2, CH4, CO, H2, N2O and SF6 have been measured above central Amazônia. The local sampling was over Tapajós National Forest, a primary forest in Para State, where had a CO2 flux tower and an east impact area with sources like animals, rice cultivation, biomass burning, etc, to compare the influence of an impact area and a preserved area in the profiles. The Reserva Biológica de Cuieiras, at Amazon State, is the other studied place, where there already exists a CO2 flux tower, and an east preserved area at this State, to comparer with the Cuieiras. The sampling has been carried out on vertical profile from 1000 ft up to 12000 ft using a semi-automated sampling package developed at GMD/NOAA and a small aircraft. The analysis uses the MAGICC system (Multiple Analysis of Gases Influence Climate Change) which is installed at the Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory (LQA) in IPEN (Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares). The results showed that all gases studied, except H2 gas, has been following the global trend. At the Pará State, for the studied years, the Amazonian Forest performed as small CO2 sink. To compare Wet and Dry Seasons, subtracted the Ascension concentration values in the period to remove the global influence. So that, in the 2004 and 2005 wet seasons and 2004 dry season comparison, it was observed 2 ppm CO2 concentration higher on Wet Seasons. At Amazon State, the Wet Season profiles had source behavior, presenting 10 ppm CO2 concentration higher under PBL (Planetary Boundary Layer). In both states concentrations were higher than Ascension Island concentration. CH4 concentration over Pará and Amazon States presented higher values than Ascension in 80 ppb and 25 ppb, respectively. Dry Season concentrations have been higher than Wet Season concentrations. N2O concentration in Para State was similar to Ascension concentration until 2003, when its concentration has been an enhancement, because of N fertilizer utilization at near area. N2O concentration was similar in the two studied States, presenting discreet source at Wet Season. The SF6 concentration presented the global trend, and it was a little beat higher over Amazon State, suggesting different air origin. The CO concentration was higher under PBL and presented values during Dry Season higher in 130 ppb and 150 ppb than Wet Season, for burning contribution. The highest average concentration was over Amazon State, which agrees with the different air origin hypothesis. H2 gas presented behavior similar to CO gas in the Dry Season. The Amazon State performed a small sink role during Wet Season and in Para State is higher during dry season performed like a source and during wet season like a sink.

No panorama atual de mudanças climáticas, o Metano (CH4) é considerado o segundo principal gás de efeito estufa antrópico. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o papel da Amazônia na emissão global de CH4, sendo esta a maior floresta tropical do mundo. Neste estudo foram realizados perfis verticais, utilizando aviões de pequeno porte, desde 150 m da superfície até 4,4 km, em quatro localidades da Bacia Amazônica, formando um grande quadrante abrangendo toda a Bacia. Os locais foram: próximo a Santarém (SAN; 2,8°S, 54,9°O), Alta Floresta (ALF; 8,8°S, 56,7°O), Rio Branco (RBA; 9,3°S, 67,6°O) e Tabatinga (TAB; 5,9°S, 70,0°O). Foram realizados quatro anos (2010-2013) de medidas contínuas em escala regional, quinzenalmente, totalizando 293 perfis verticais. Até o presente momento estas medidas são únicas e representam uma nova abordagem nas emissões nesta escala. Foram calculados os fluxos de CH4 nestas quatro localidades por meio do Método de Integração de Coluna e os fluxos anuais foram calculados através de média proporcional, considerando a área de influência de cada localidade. Os anos de 2010 e 2012 foram anos de seca, enquanto 2011 e 2013 foram anos com precipitação acima da média na Amazônia. Dos quatro anos de estudo apenas 2011 apresentou uma temperatura inferior a média. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a Amazônia atua como uma importante fonte de CH4, com uma emissão de 25,4 Tg ano-1 (4% - 5% da emissão global), considerando a área da Amazônia Brasileira (4,2 milhões de km2). As emissões nesta região apresentaram variações regionais e anuais, com maiores emissões nos anos de seca. A emissão pela queima de biomassa não foi significativa nas regiões de estudo, enquanto as estimativas de emissões por fermentação entérica e manejo dos dejetos de animais foram significativas na maioria destas regiões. Os resultados obtidos ressaltam a importância da realização de estudos em escala regional para esclarecer o comportamento de toda a área da Bacia Amazônica Brasileira. / In the current scenario of climate change, Methane (CH4) is the second main anthropogenic greenhouse gas. This work aimed to study the role of Amazon in the global CH4 emission, which is the largest rainforest in the world. In this study vertical profiles were performed using small aircraft, from 150 m from the surface to 4.4 km in four sites in the Amazon Basin, forming a large quadrant covering the entire basin. The sites were: near Santarem (SAN, 2.8°S, 54.9°W), Alta Floresta (ALF, 8.8°S, 56.7°W), Rio Branco (RBA, 9.3°S, 67.6°W) and Tabatinga (TAB, 5.9°S, 70.0°W). Were made four years (2010-2013) of continuous measures on a regional scale, every two weeks, with a total of 293 vertical profiles. Until now these measures are unique and represent a new approach in emissions on this scale. The CH4 fluxes were calculated in these four locations through the Column Integration Technique and annual fluxes were calculated using proportional average, considering the area of influence of each location. The years 2010 and 2012 were years of drought, while 2011 and 2013 were years with total precipitation higher than the average in the Amazon. In these four years of study only in 2011 showed a lower average temperature. The results showed that the Amazon was a source of CH4, with an annual emission of 25.4 Tg (4% - 5% of global emission), considering the Brazilian Amazon area (4,2 millions km2). Emissions in this region presented regional and annual variations, with more emissions during drought years. Emissions from biomass burning was not significant, while emissions from enteric fermentation was significant in the study areas. The results obtained highlight the importance of make studies with regional scale and long temporal series to clarify the behavior of the entire Brazilian Amazon area.

Problemática mundial levantada nas últimas duas décadas, a geração de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) tem parte devida à emissão de metano por ruminantes. O metano, um potente GEE, é produto final do processo fermentativo de bovinos e, por constituir perda no potencial produtivo destes, tem sido objeto de estudo por nutricionistas do mundo todo. Na busca por estratégias para diminuírem essas perdas, diferentes dietas, aditivos e manejos nutricionais têm sido empregados. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito dos aditivos alimentares, monensina ou tanino, sobre a produção de metano ruminal em bovinos, utilizando-se a técnica de fermentação ruminal ex situ (micro-rúmen), e sobre os parâmetros da fermentação ruminal, a digestibilidade aparente total e a excreção de nutrientes da dieta. Seis vacas (873 ± 81 kg) canuladas no rúmen foram utilizadas e distribuídas a três dietas, que diferiram quanto ao aditivo utilizado, seguindo-se delineamento experimental em quadrado latino 3x3 replicado (n= 18 unidades experimentais): Controle (CON): sem aditivo; Monensina (MON): adição de 300 mg de monensina sódica por animal por dia; Tanino (TAN): adição de 100 g de extrato concentrado de tanino condensado obtido da Acácia-negra (Acacia mearnsii) por animal por dia. Cada período experimental foi constituído de 21 dias, sendo que, entre o dia 5 e o dia 15, 2 g do marcador óxido crômico por kg de MS de alimento consumido foi administrado via cânula ruminal, para determinação da digestibilidade aparente total da MS e suas frações, bem como da excreção dos nutrientes da dieta. O ensaio de digestibilidade foi constituído por duas fases, sendo os cinco primeiros dias para adaptação ao marcador e os cinco últimos para coleta de fezes. A excreção da MS e dos nutrientes, bem como a excreção de nitrogênio, foi calculada a partir dos dados de coeficiente de digestibilidade da MS e suas frações. Para cada período experimental, os últimos 6 dias foram destinados para coleta de dados do consumo de matéria seca (CMS). No dia 21 coletou-se líquido ruminal, antes, 3, 6, 9 e 12 h após a alimentação matinal, para determinação da concentração de ácidos graxos de cadeia curta (AGCC) e metano (CH4). As concentrações de CH4 e AGCC foram determinadas por cromatografia gasosa. O pH ruminal foi mensurado por um dispositivo contínuo de mensuração, durante 24 horas no 21º dia de cada período experimental. A técnica de fermentação ex situ consiste em incubar frascos tipo penicilina com conteúdo ruminal sólido e líquido, em banho termostático por 30 minutos, com posterior mensuração da produção de metano por cromatografia gasosa, sendo estimada a perda de energia relativa (PER). A PER avalia a eficiência da fermentação dos alimentos, ou seja, verifica a perda de metano quando comparada aos outros produtos da fermentação, tais como, acído acético, propiônico e butírico. Os dados foram analisados pelo programa SAS (Versão 9.2, 2010) através do procedimento MIXED. No modelo, o efeito de tratamento foi considerado fixo e os efeitos de período, quadrado e animal dentro de quadrado considerados aleatórios. Não houve diferenças significativas (P0,05) entre os tratamentos para o consumo, digestibilidade aparente total e excreção da MS, PB, EB, FDN, FDA, EE, ENN, MO ou P, nem na digestibilidade do NDT e na excreção de N. Não houve efeito signifivativo dos aditivos (P>0,05) sobre a concentração de N-NH3, pH ruminal, para os ácidos acético, propiônico e butírico, nem para o AGCC total. Para a variável metano houve diferença significativa (P<0,05), sendo que o tratamento com monensina foi responsável por reduzir a produção de metano em 10,7%, já o tanino reduziu em 8,0%, quando comparados ao tratamento controle. Observou-se que a PER foi diminuída significativamente em 20,3% e 23,8% (P=0,0387) com a administração dos aditivos monensina e tanino, quando comparadas ao tratamento controle. Portanto, a utilização de monensina ou tanino, em dietas com proporção de volumoso e concentrado de 50%, demonstra ser uma interessante opção em dietas para bovinos, com vistas a eficiência energética dos animais, não interferindo sobre o consumo, digestibilidade e excreção dos nutrientes com consequente redução nas emissões de metano. / Worldwide problem raised in the last two decades, the generation of greenhouse gases (GHG) is partly due to methane emission by ruminants. Methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, is the end product of the fermentation process in cattle, and as is considered a potential loss in their productive potential has been studied by nutritionists worldwide. In the search for strategies to decrease these losses, different diets, additives and nutritional management have been employed. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of feed additives monensin or tannins on ruminal methane production in cattle evaluated by the technique of ex situ ruminal fermentation (micro-rumen), and on rumen fermentation parameters, as well as, total tract apparent digestibility and excretion of nutrients. Six ruminally cannulated cows (873 ± 81 kg) were distributed to three diets that differed on the additive used, in a replicated 3x3 Latin square experimental design (n=18 experimental units): Control (CON): no additive; Monensin (MON) addition of 300 mg of monensin per animal per day; Tannin (TAN): addition of 100 g of concentrated extract condensed tannin obtained from black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) per animal per day. Each experimental period consisted of 21 days, and between day 5 and day 15, 2 g per kg DM consumed of the marker chromic oxide was administered via rumen cannula for determination of DM and its fractions apparent digestibility as well as, excretion of nutrients. Digestibility trial consisted of two phases, the first five days for adaptation to the marker and the last five for feces sampling. The excretion of DM and nutrients, as well as, nitrogen excretion was calculated from the data of DM digestibility and its fractions. In each trial, the last 6 days were used for data collection of dry matter intake (DMI). On day 21, ruminal fluid was collected before, 3, 6, 9 and 12 h after morning feeding to determine the concentration of short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and methane (CH4). The concentration of SCFA and CH4 were determined by gas chromatography. Rumen pH was measured by a continuous measurement device for 24 hours on day 21 of each experimental period. The fermentation technique consists of ex situ incubation of penicillin flasks with liquid and solid rumen contents in water bath for 30 minutes, with subsequent measurement of methane production by gas chromatography, with final estimation of relative energy loss (REL). The REL evaluates the efficiency of feed fermentation , in other words, verifies methane loss when compared to the other fermentation products such as acetic, propionic and butyric acids. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS (Version 9.2, 2010). In the model, the effect of treatment was considered fixed and the effects of period, square, and animal within square were considered random. No significant differences (P0.05) between treatments were observed for dry matter intake, apparent digestibility and excretion of DM, CP, GE, NDF, ADF, EE, NFE, MO or P, nor TDN digestibility and N excretion. There was no significant effect (P>0.05) of additives on rumen pH, concentration of total SCFA, acetic, propionic and butyric acids, as well as, NH3- N. Monensin reduced (P<0.05) methane production by 10.7%, whereas tannin reduced by 8.0%, when compared to control treatment. Relative energy loss was significantly decreased by 20.3% and 23.8% (P=0.0387) with administration of monensin and tannin when compared to control. Therefore, the use of monensin or tannin in diets with forage to concentrate ratio of 50%, shows to be an interesting option in catlle diets aiming to improve energy efficiency in animals, not interfering on intake, digestibility and nutrient excretion with consequent reduction in methane emissions.

Cette thèse porte sur le développement théorique et expérimental d’une nouvelle méthodologie de détection des gaz à effet de serre basée sur la spectroscopie optique d’absorption. La question posée était : est-il possible d’évaluer de manière univoque la concentration d’un gaz à partir d’une mesure par spectroscopie d’absorption différentielle, dans laquelle l’étendue spectrale de la source lumineuse est plus large que celle d’une ou de plusieurs raies d'absorption de la molécule considérée et que, de plus la détection n’est pas résolue spectralement ? La réponse à cette question permettra d’entrevoir à terme le développer d’un instrument de télédétection de terrain robuste sans contrainte opto-mécanique majeure aussi bien sur la source laser que sur la chaîne de détection.Ces travaux ont donné lieu au développement d’une nouvelle méthodologie que l’on dénomme « Optical Similitude Absorption Spectroscopy » (OSAS) ou spectroscopie d’absorption optique de similitude. Cette méthodologie permet donc de déterminer de manière quantitative une concentration d’un gaz à partir de mesures d’absorption différentielle non résolue spectralement sans procédure de calibration en concentration. Ceci demande alors une connaissance précise de la densité spectrale de la source lumineuse et du système de détection. Ces travaux publiés ont permis de démontrer que cette nouvelle méthodologie est dans le domaine spectral du proche infrarouge peu sensible aux conditions thermodynamiques du gaz observé. D’autre part, ces travaux ont permis de mettre en exergue l’inversion de la Loi de Beer-Lambert non résolue spectralement ce qui donne lieu à la résolution d’un système analytique non linéaire. À cette fin le développement d’un nouvel algorithme d’inversion de ce type de mesures a pu être vérifié expérimentalement en laboratoire sur le méthane, en exploitant aussi bien des sources à large bande spectrale cohérente et non cohérente. La détection de cette molécule dans l’atmosphère a pu être réalisée dans le cadre de ces travaux en couplant judicieusement la méthodologie OSAS et la technique Lidar. Ces travaux ouvrent de nombreuses perspectives sur la détection de gaz à effet de serre dans le domaine spectral infrarouge ainsi que la possibilité de détecter plusieurs molécules d’intérêt atmosphérique simultanément / This thesis concerns the theoretical and experimental development of a new methodology for greenhouse gases detection based on the optical absorption. The problem relies on the unambiguous retrieval of a gas concentration from differential absorption measurements, in which the spectral width of the light source is wider than one or several absorption lines of the considered target gas given that the detection is not spectrally resolved. This problem could lead to the development of a robust remote sensing instrument dedicated to greenhouse gas observation, without strong technology limitations on the laser source as well as on the detection system. Solving this problem, we could propose a new methodology named: "Optical Similitude Absorption Spectroscopy" (OSAS).This methodology thus allows to determine a quantitative target gas concentration from non-resolved differential absorption measurements avoiding the use of a gas concentration calibration procedure. Thereby, a precise knowledge of the emitted power spectral density of the light source and the efficiency of the detection system are needed.This work that has been recently published could demonstrate that this new methodology applied on the NIR remains accurate even in the presence of strong atmospheric pressure and temperature gradients. Moreover, we show that inverting spectrally integrated measurements which follow the Beer-Lambert law leads to solve a nonlinear system. For this, a new inversion algorithm has been developed. It was experimentally verified in laboratory on methane by using coherent and non-coherent broadband light sources. The detection of methane in the atmosphere could be also realized by coupling the OSAS methodology and the Lidar technique. Outlooks are proposed and especially on the detection of greenhouse gases in the infrared spectral domain as well as the ability to simultaneously detect several atmospheric molecules of interest

Achieving a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions has become a key challenge facing global society and its economies. Despite this, tourism policy and strategic planning rarely acknowledge carbon mitigation as a strategic objective and tourism as a sector is rarely recognised in low-carbon plans. This situation represents a substantial challenge, as tourism and travel have a high-carbon impact and carbon mitigation is hindered by lack of carbon data, and a continued drive for economic growth. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the effectiveness of carbon footprinting and scenario modelling to help examine the opportunities and challenges for implementing low-carbon tourism pathways in destinations, and to consider how the opportunities could be enabled. The 'REAP Tourism' footprint tool was used to investigate the carbon impact of visitors to destinations across South West England. The purpose was to estimate emissions, suggest a baseline footprint and offer alternative growth and mitigation scenarios of how tourism could more effectively reduce emissions. Through participatory workshops, evaluation questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, stakeholders identified the limitations and benefits of carbon modelling and the challenges and opportunities for a transition towards low-carbon tourism in destinations. The results demonstrated that the carbon footprint was a useful and informative indicator. The baseline data and scenarios provided a basis for constructive low-carbon dialogue with tourism stakeholders, which helped to challenge current thinking and facilitate the co-creation of ideas and potential interventions. A range of low-carbon opportunities and challenges were identified relating to the cultural, political and structural components of tourism governance. A conceptual low-carbon transition framework is proposed, to illustrate the opportunities. Stakeholder dialogue and debate, informed by quantitative and qualitative data, is central to the framework. Cultural, political and structural opportunities for change are also identified. Further investigation is needed to test the framework and examine the levels of influence and capabilities of different types of tourism stakeholders. The use of integrated environmental-economic indicators to inform national and local tourism policy and strategy, also require application. This thesis contributes to an emerging body of knowledge on the governance of low-carbon destinations, from a practical, methodological and conceptual basis.

Suivre et comprendre l'évolution des deux principaux gaz à effet de serre anthropogéniques (CO2 et CH4) sont des enjeux majeurs pour les sciences du climat. L'augmentation du nombre et de la diversité des observations (en surface, mesures aéroportées, satellitaires) ainsi que l'amélioration des modèles de chimie-transports atmosphériques ont contribué à développer notre compréhension des cycles biogéochimiques associés à ces gaz. Néanmoins, les observations précises le long de la verticale sont encore très limitées. Elles deviennent pourtant indispensables, d'une part, pour approfondir nos connaissances dans le transport de CO2et CH4, d'autre part, pour évaluer les colonnes totales ou partielles mesurées par satellites. Dans cette thèse, nous présentons un instrument innovant appelé "AirCore" permettant d'échantillonner l'air en continu le long d'une colonne atmosphérique lors d'une descente depuis haute altitude. Différents AirCores donnant accès à différentes résolutions verticales ont été développés au LMD et déployés avec succès lors des campagnes ballons Strato-Sciences 2014, 2015 et 2016 du CNES. Les profils verticaux de AirCores ont permis de valider les estimations de colonnes partielles de CH4 réalisées avec l'instrument IASI/Metop. Des comparaisons ont été menées avec des profils troposphériques obtenus lors de campagnes aéroportées (HIPPO), ou avec des profils issus de modèles de transports (LMDz, TM5) ou de prévisions (CAMS). Les résultats ont démontré l'importance d'une bonne caractérisation de la stratosphère pour les activités de calibration/validation des mesures satellites et, plus généralement, l'étude des gaz à effet de serre. / Monitoring and understanding the evolution of the two most important anthropogenic greenhouse gases(carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4)) are some of the major challenges in climate science. Over the past decades,the increased availability and diversity of observations (surface networks, aircraft campaigns, satellite observations)and the improvement of atmospheric transport models has allowed to increase our understanding of biogeochemicalcycles of CO2 and CH4. Nevertheless, precise vertical observations are still very rare. However, these become crucialto both properly characterize the vertical transport of the gases, as well as to fully evaluate total or partial columnsof gases retrieved from space observations.In this thesis, we present an innovative instrument called “AirCore” allowing to collect a continuous air samplealong an atmospheric column while descending from high altitude. The analysis of CO2 and CH4 mole fractions inthe collected sample combined with the measurements of an ambient parameters (Pressure, temperature...) allows toretrieve vertical profiles from the surface up to 30 km. Initially invented at NOAA, several new AirCores giving accessto various vertical resolutions have been developed at LMD and flown with success during the CNES Strato-Sciences2014, 2015, and 2016 balloon campaigns. Excellent agreement was found between profiles acquired with differentAirCores during the same flights demonstrating the repeatability of the measurements and allowing to validate thecalculation of the vertical resolution. Comparisons with measurements from independent laser diode spectrometersflown on the same gondola have confirmed that AirCore profiles capture the vertical variability of CO2 and CH4.The vertical profiles retrieved from AirCores have been allowed to validate the CH4 partial columns retrieved fromIASI/Metop at LMD and revealed that the information on the full atmospheric column is required. Comparisons havebeen performed with tropospheric profiles obtained during aircraft campaigns (HIPPO) as well as vertical profilesextracted from atmospheric transport models (LMDz,TM5) and forecast systems (CAMS). Results demonstrated theimportance of a good characterization of the stratosphere for satellite

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Horticulture and Natural Resources / Dale J. Bremer / Turfgrasses sequester and emit carbon dioxide, and emit nitrous oxide (N₂O) when fertilized with nitrogen and irrigated. Future water availability is a serious issue and drought restrictions may be imposed on turf managers while turf areas are subjected to traffic stress. My objectives in Chapter 2 were to: 1) quantify the magnitude and patterns of N₂O emissions and carbon (C) sequestration in zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica Steud.); and 2) determine how irrigation (66% and 33% reference evapotranspiration [ET₀] replacement) and fertilization (polymer-coated urea, urea, and unfertilized) management may reduce N₂O emissions and enhance carbon sequestration. My objectives in Chapters 3 and 4 were to evaluate above- and below-ground responses of cool-season (C3) [Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)] and warm-season (C4) grasses {buffalograss [Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm] and zoysiagrass] at golf course-related mowing heights [1.6-cm (fairway) and 6.4-cm (rough)], with and without traffic during a simulated drought and subsequent recovery period (without traffic). In Chapter 2, N₂O emissions increased by 6.3% with more irrigation during summers and increased from 4.06 kg ha⁻¹ in unfertilized turf to 4.50, and 5.62 kg ha⁻¹ in polymer-coated urea and urea treated turf, respectively, during the 2-year study. There was no difference in C sequestration rates between a high vs. low input management schedule. The C sequestration rate was 0.952 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for zoysiagrass when averaged across management schedules and depths. The use of a controlled-release fertilizer such as PCU compared to the use of a quick-release fertilizer and/or lower irrigation will reduce N₂O emissions in turfgrass. In Chapters 3 and 4, the better drought tolerance of C4 grasses led to more differences between traffic treatments within C4 than C3 grasses, but C4 grasses maintained the highest quality and green cover. Quality at rough- compared to fairway-height was more impacted by traffic. Decreasing soil moisture due to drought led to a minimal impact from traffic on soil bulk density, soil penetration resistance (SPR), and root measurements. During drought, SPR at deeper soil depths and fairway plots increased and exceeded the critical value of 2.0 MPa. Both C4 grasses and perennial ryegrass had larger root diameters, which may have led to better soil compaction resistance. Traffic during drought will have a negative and accelerated impacts above-ground, but minimal impact below-ground, which will vary with turf species and mowing height.

Malgré l'importance de la séquestration du carbone (C) dans les sols forestiers, il existe actuellement peu de projets Mécanisme pour un Développement Propore (MDP) qui tiennent compte de la gestion de ce compartiment dans l'atténuation du réchauffement climatique. La cause principale est que l'accréditation du carbone séquestré dans le sol représente de plus grands défis et des risques par rapport aux autres composantes des écosystèmes forestiers.Connaissant les difficultés économiques et les problèmes environnementaux impliqués dans l'adoption d'un tel projet et l'importance des forêts dans l'atténuation du changement climatique, l'objectif de cette étude était d'évaluer les performances des méthodes dedétermination des stocks de carbone du sol dans deux projets de reboisement, ainsi que pour leurs situations de références (c'est-à-dire utilisation des terres avant la plantation, des pâturages naturels, ainsi que la végétation native) comme base pour diminuer le rapport coût bénéfice des projets MDP dans le secteur forestier. Pour atteindre l'objectif principal, cestravaux de recherches ont consisté à l'étude de: (i) la variabilité spatiale du C du sol dans une zone de reboisement avec des espèces indigènes, établi dans le bassin amazonien dans le MatoGrosso à Cotriguaçu (Zone I) et une chronoséquence de plantations d'Eucalyptus, située dansl'état de São Paulo à Avare (zone II); (ii) la taille des parcelles et la distance idéale de séparation des échantillons à partir de l'étude de la dépendance spatiale du C, (iii)l'estimation de la teneur en C et la densité du sol (Ds) par spectroscopie dans le proche(NIRS) et moyen (MIRS) infrarouge, afin de réduire les coûts sans affecter la qualité des résultats analytiques : et (iv) du calcul des stocks de C du sol pour ces deux projets et l'estimation du bilan C du projet MDP menées dans la zone II, en utilisant l'outil EX-ACT («EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool»). Les résultats ont confirmé l'existence d'une variabilité spatiale importante du C du sol, ainsi qu'une forte dépendance spatiale pour tous les traitements étudiés. L'analyse du nombre optimal d'échantillons de sol a montré que la collecte de cinq points par parcelle est aussi précise qu'un échantillonnage plus dense. La taille optimale des parcelles a été estimée de 361 à 841 m2 dans les plantations de la zone I et de 900 à 3721 m2 pour la Zone II. La performance de la spectroscopie MIRS et NIRS pourestimer la teneur en C des sols a été jugée très satisfaisante, surtout quand les modèles ont été étalonnés à partir de sous populations constituées de 10 à 50% de l'ensemble des données.Les résultats de l'estimation de Ds ont été légèrement moins satisfaisants que ceux pour le Cdu sol. Les stocks de C dans le sol calculés pour la zone I étaient supérieurs à ceux de la zone II. Si on ne considère que le compartiment du sol, il apparaît que le potentiel de génération de crédits C est plus important dans le reboisement à partir d'espèces indigènes dans un sol argileux que pour un reboisement d'eucalyptus dans un sol sableux. Le bilan C du projet de la zone I a montré un potentiel de séquestration de près de trois millions de tonnes d'équivalentCO2 en 40 ans. Il est espéré que cette étude qui montre des possibilités de réduction des coûts liés aux calculs des stocks de C du sol contribuera à une meilleure prise en compte de ce compartiment dans les projets MDP forestiers. / Considering the great importance of carbon sequestration (C) in forest soils, there are fewCDM projects that include this compartment as an agent of global warming mitigation. Thisoccurs because the quantification of soil C stocks represents a bigger challenge whencompared to other components of forest ecosystems. Considering the economic difficultiesand environmental issues involved in adopting this type of project and the importance offorests in mitigating climate change, the objective of this study was to evaluate theperformance of methods for obtaining soil C stocks in two forestry areas and their respectivebaselines (land use prior to planting, i.e. pastures and native vegetation) as a basis forreducing the cost-benefit ratio of CDM projects. To achieve the main objective, this researchwas composed of the following steps: (i) estimating the spatial variability of soil C in an areareforested with native species, established in Cotriguaçú, MT (Area I) and a Eucalyptuschronosequence, located in Avaré, SP (Area II), (ii) determining the optimal amount of soilsamples and the plot size from the soil C spatial dependence range in the reforestation areas,(iii) estimating soil C content and bulk density (BD) by Near and Mid Infrared ReflectanceSpectroscopy (NIRS and MIRS, respectively) to reduce analytical costs without affecting thequality of the results, and (iv) calculating soil C stocks in both areas and estimating the carbonbalance of a CDM Project conducted in Area II, using EX-ACT ("Ex-Ante Carbon BalanceTool"). The results confirmed the existence of significant soil C spatial variability in bothareas and a strong spatial dependence at all plots. The analysis of the optimal number of soilsamples indicated that the sampling procedure with five points per plot is as accurate asintensive sampling. The optimum size of plots ranged from 361-841 m2 at Area I plantationsand from 900-3721 m2 at Area II. The performance of MIRS and NIRS to estimate the soilcarbon content was very satisfactory, especially when the models were calibrated withamounts between 5-10% of the total data set. The estimations of BD were slightly less precisethan those of soil C content. The soil C stocks obtained at Area I were higher than Area II.Considering only the soil compartment, it is clear that the potential for C credit generation in areforestation with native species on a clayey soil is higher than in a reforestation witheucalyptus on a sandy soil. The C balance of the CDM project conducted in Area I is expectedto sequester almost three million tones of CO2 eq in 40 years. We hope this study contributesto the increased inclusion of soil in CDM projects, by confirming the feasibility of reducingthe costs associated with both sampling and analytical procedures.