Fossil fuel depletion, economic development, urban expansion and climate change present tough challenges to municipal- and regional-scale energy systems. Regional energy system planning, including waste treatment, renewable energy supply, energy efficiency, and climate change, are considered essential to meet these challenges and move toward a sustainable society. This thesis includes studies on energy system from municipal waste, potential for a fossil fuel-independent regional energy system with increased renewable energy products using waste as one of energy sources, and the performance of biomass-fired combined heat and power (CHP) plants. A top-down method is adopted to organize the studies, from national waste-to-energy (WtE) scenarios to individual energy plants. The first study considers the overall potential contribution of WtE to energy supply and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions mitigation in Sweden until 2050 under several different scenarios. Depending on WtE scenario considered, the study shows that WtE can supply energy between 38 and 186 TWh and mitigate between CO2 of 1 and 12 Mt per year by 2050 based on the baseline of year 2010. At a regional level, static and dynamic optimization models with a focus on WtE are developed for two regions in Sweden and Finland. The former is used to investigate the possibilities of optimal positioning of new energy plants, retrofitting existing energy plants and planting energy crops. The latter case study is on regional heat and power production using biogas generated from agricultural and livestock wastes. Centralized biogas production units perform better than distributed production regarding energy and carbon balance though the net energy output is negligible. However, a significant GHG emission can be reduced compared to the present status. Retrofitting existing conventional CHP plants is another option for improving regional energy system. The study shows that integrating heat-demanded processes such as drying, bioethanol and pellet production with existing CHP plants can improve overall energy efficiency and power output, increase annual operation time and reduce production cost as well as mitigate GHG emissions.  It is recommended that building new WtE/energy plants at optimum sites, upgrading the existing energy plants, expanding the agricultural/forestry waste/residues output (biomass) and planting more energy crops shall be taken into considerations for the future regional energy systems. / Utarmning av fossila bränslekällor, ekonomisk utveckling, städernas utbredning och klimatförändring är svåra utmaningar för kommunala- och regionala energisystem. Planering av det regionala energisystemet, inklusive avfallshantering, förnyelsebara energikällor, energieffektivisering och hänsyn till klimatförändringar, anses avgörande för att möta dessa utmaningar och gå mot ett hållbart samhälle. Denna avhandling innehåller studier av energisystem centrerad kring hushållsavfall, potentialet för fossilbränslefria regionala energisystem som utnyttjar ökad andel förnyelsebara energiprodukter med avfall som en energikälla och prestandautvärdering av ett biomassa-eldat kraftvärmeverk. Studierna har organiserats efter storlek på system, från nationella avfall-till-energi scenarier till enskilda kraftverk.   Den första studien behandlar övergripande möjligheten att genom avfall-till-energi bidra till energiförsörjningen och begränsa utsläppet av växthusgaser i Sverige till 2050 under flera olika scenarier. Beroendet på avfall-till-energiscenario visar studien att genom att utnyttja avfall kan mellan 38 och 186 TWh energi levereras och dessutom kan koldioxidutsläppen reduceras med 1-12 miljoner ton till år 2050 med 2010 som basår.   På den regionala nivån, statiska och dynamiska optimeringsmodeller, med fokus på avfall-till-energi, är utvecklats för två regioner, en i Sverige och en i Finland. Det första modellen används för hitta den optimala placeringen av nya energianläggningar, anpassning av befintliga anläggningar och placering av odlingar av energigrödor. Den senare ingår i en fallstudie av den regionala kraft- och värmeproduktionen genom utnyttjande av biogas producerad från jordbruksavfall och djurgödsel. Centraliserade biogasanläggningar presterar bättre än decentraliserad anläggningar när det gäller energi – och kolbalanser även om i båda fallen så är skillnaden mellan konsumerad mängd bränsle, värme och el och producerad värme och el försumbar. Däremot kan en betydande mängd av växthusgasutsläppet i båda fallen undvikas jämfört med nuläget.   Anpassning av befintliga konventionella kraftvärmeverk är ett annat alternativ för att förbättra det regionala energisystemet. Studien visar att genom att integrera värmekrävande processer såsom torkning, bioetanol- och pelletsproduktion med befintliga kraftvärmeverk kan den totala energieffektiviten och uteffekten förbättras, öka den årliga drifftiden och minska produktionskostnaderna och utsläppen av växthusgaser.   Rekommendationen är att för de framtida regionala energisystemen överväga att bygga nya avfall-till-energianläggningar med optimal placering, uppgradera befintliga energianläggningar utöka insamlandet av avfall/restprodukter från jord- och skogbruk och plantera mer energigrödor.

This thesis details the ways in which energy is consumed in an existing Canadian high-rise apartment building and outlines a strategy to reduce its consumption of grid purchased energy by 90%. Grid purchased energy is targeted because the building is located in Saskatchewan where energy is predominantly generated from fossil fuels that release greenhouse gas emissions into the environment. Greenhouse gas emissions are targeted because of the growing consensus that human activities are the cause of recent global climate destabilization and the general trend towards global warming. Energy consumption is also a concern because of anticipated resource shortages resulting from increases in both global population and average per capita consumption. Many researchers are beginning to claim that a factor 10 reduction in energy use by industrialized nations will be required in order for our civilization to be sustainable.<p>The building that was studied is an 11 story seniors high-rise with a total above ground floor area of 8,351 m2. It was constructed in 1985, in Saskatoon, SK, and it is an average user of energy for this region of the world and for a building of its size and type. Numerous field measurements were taken in the building, both during this study and previously by the Saskatchewan Research Council. These measurements were used to create a computer model of the building using EE4. After the computer model of the building was created different energy saving retrofits were simulated and compared. <p>Over 40 retrofits are presented and together they reduce the annual grid purchased energy of the building from 360 kWh/m2 (based on above ground floor area) to 36 kWh/m2, a factor 10 reduction. Natural gas consumption was reduced by approximately 94% and grid purchased electrical consumption was reduced by approximately 81%. As a result of these energy savings, a factor 6.6 reduction (85%) in greenhouse gas emissions was also achieved. The goal of factor 10 could not be achieved only through energy conservation and the final design includes two solar water heating systems and grid-connected photovoltaic panels. These systems were modeled using RETScreen project analysis tools.<p>Capital cost estimates and simple payback periods for each retrofit are also presented. The total cost to retrofit the building is estimated to be $3,123,000 and the resulting utility savings from the retrofits are approximately $150,000 per year. This is a factor 6.0 reduction (83%) in annual utility costs in comparison to the base building. While the typical response to proposing a green building is that financial sacrifices are required, there is also research available stating that operating in a more sustainable manner is economically advantageous. This research project adds to the green building economics debate by detailing savings and costs for each retrofit and ranking each retrofit that was proposed. The most economically advantageous mechanical system that was added to the building was energy recovery in the outdoor ventilation air. It should also be noted that there was already a glycol run-around heat recovery system in the building and even greater savings would have been obtained from installing the energy recovery system had this not been the case.<p>While the goal of factor 10 required economically unjustifiable retrofits to be proposed, the majority of the retrofits had simple payback periods of less than 20 years (30 out of 49). This research shows that certain retrofits have highly desirable rates of return and that when making decisions regarding investing in auditing a building, improving energy efficiency, promoting conservation, or utilizing renewable energy technologies, maintaining the status quo may be economically detrimental. This would be especially true in the case of new building construction.

This thesis details the ways in which energy is consumed in an existing Canadian high-rise apartment building and outlines a strategy to reduce its consumption of grid purchased energy by 90%. Grid purchased energy is targeted because the building is located in Saskatchewan where energy is predominantly generated from fossil fuels that release greenhouse gas emissions into the environment. Greenhouse gas emissions are targeted because of the growing consensus that human activities are the cause of recent global climate destabilization and the general trend towards global warming. Energy consumption is also a concern because of anticipated resource shortages resulting from increases in both global population and average per capita consumption. Many researchers are beginning to claim that a factor 10 reduction in energy use by industrialized nations will be required in order for our civilization to be sustainable.<p>The building that was studied is an 11 story seniors high-rise with a total above ground floor area of 8,351 m2. It was constructed in 1985, in Saskatoon, SK, and it is an average user of energy for this region of the world and for a building of its size and type. Numerous field measurements were taken in the building, both during this study and previously by the Saskatchewan Research Council. These measurements were used to create a computer model of the building using EE4. After the computer model of the building was created different energy saving retrofits were simulated and compared. <p>Over 40 retrofits are presented and together they reduce the annual grid purchased energy of the building from 360 kWh/m2 (based on above ground floor area) to 36 kWh/m2, a factor 10 reduction. Natural gas consumption was reduced by approximately 94% and grid purchased electrical consumption was reduced by approximately 81%. As a result of these energy savings, a factor 6.6 reduction (85%) in greenhouse gas emissions was also achieved. The goal of factor 10 could not be achieved only through energy conservation and the final design includes two solar water heating systems and grid-connected photovoltaic panels. These systems were modeled using RETScreen project analysis tools.<p>Capital cost estimates and simple payback periods for each retrofit are also presented. The total cost to retrofit the building is estimated to be $3,123,000 and the resulting utility savings from the retrofits are approximately $150,000 per year. This is a factor 6.0 reduction (83%) in annual utility costs in comparison to the base building. While the typical response to proposing a green building is that financial sacrifices are required, there is also research available stating that operating in a more sustainable manner is economically advantageous. This research project adds to the green building economics debate by detailing savings and costs for each retrofit and ranking each retrofit that was proposed. The most economically advantageous mechanical system that was added to the building was energy recovery in the outdoor ventilation air. It should also be noted that there was already a glycol run-around heat recovery system in the building and even greater savings would have been obtained from installing the energy recovery system had this not been the case.<p>While the goal of factor 10 required economically unjustifiable retrofits to be proposed, the majority of the retrofits had simple payback periods of less than 20 years (30 out of 49). This research shows that certain retrofits have highly desirable rates of return and that when making decisions regarding investing in auditing a building, improving energy efficiency, promoting conservation, or utilizing renewable energy technologies, maintaining the status quo may be economically detrimental. This would be especially true in the case of new building construction.

Changes in climate caused by changes in anthropogenic (i.e. "man-made") greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have become a major public policy issue in countries all over the world. With an estimated 28.4% of these emissions attributed to the transportation sector, attention is being focused on strategies aimed at reducing transportation GHG emissions. Quantifying the change in GHG emissions due to such strategies is one of the most challenging aspects of integrating GHG emissions and climate change into transportation planning and policy analysis; the inventory techniques and methods for estimating the impact of different strategies and policies are still relatively unsophisticated. This research developed a method for estimating intercity passenger transportation energy and carbon footprints and applied this method to three US DOT-designated high speed rail (HSR) corridors in the U.S.-- San Francisco/Los Angeles/San Diego; Seattle/Portland/Eugene, and Philadelphia/Harrisburg/Pittsburg. The methodology consists of estimating the number of trips by mode, estimating the direct CO₂ emissions, and estimating indirect CO₂ emissions. For each study corridor the impacts of different strategies and policies on carbon dioxide emissions were estimated as an illustration of the policy application of the developed methodology. The largest gain in CO₂ savings can be achieved by strategies aiming at automobile emissions, due to its sizeable share as main mode and access/egress mode to and from airports and bus and train stations: an average fuel economy of 35.5 mpg would result in a 38-42% savings of total CO₂ emissions; replacing 25% of gasoline use with cellulosic ethanol can have a positive impact on CO₂ emissions of about 13.4-14.5%; and a 10% market share for electric vehicles would result in potential CO₂ savings of 3.4-7.8%. The impact of a 20% or 35% improvement in aircraft efficiency on CO₂ savings is much lower (0.88-3.65%) than the potential impacts of the policies targeting automobile emissions. Three HSR options were analyzed using Volpe's long-distance demand model: HSR125, HSR150, and HSR200. Only the HSR150 and HSR200 would result in CO₂ savings, and then just for two of the three corridors: the Pacific Northwest (1.5%) and California (0.8-0.9%). With increased frequency and load factors, a HSR150 system could result in CO₂ savings of 5.2% and 1.8% for the Pacific Northwest and California, respectively. This would require a mode shift from auto of 5-6%. This shift in auto mode share would mainly have to be a result of pricing strategies. From these results, HSR may not be such an obvious choice, however, with increased ridership and diversions from other modes, CO₂ savings increase significantly due to the lower emissions per passenger mile for HSR. The framework developed in this study has the ability to determine the GHG emissions for such HSR options and increased diversions.

There are thousands of subterranean coal fires in the world that, because of incomplete combustion, emit a wide variety of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds to the atmosphere, water, and soil at concentrations that could pose health risks to humans and wildlife. The main goals of this study were to (1) review methods that are used to characterize physical and chemical characteristics of coal-fire sites, (2) determine relationships between gas emissions and physical and chemical characteristics of coal-fire sites, using a combination of regression and multivariate statistical methods, and (3) determine the concentrations of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds in water and soil at two coal-fire sites in eastern Kentucky. More specifically: The objective of Chapter 1 was to review past works and list technologies used over time. Eight years of coal-fire collection technologies were reviewed. A variety of methods and technologies were identified. Qualitative and quantitative preferences were noted. The objective of Chapter 2 was to identify and list uncontrolled coal-fire variables. These variables include complete/incomplete combustion; fire temperature and size; distance to fire; relative humidity and moisture in the system; geology, geochemistry, and age of coal; condition of the mine, sampling time of day; sampling equipment differences; and human error. A secondary objective of this chapter was to determine which coal-fire gases have strong relationships by using the principal component analysis (PCA) software JMP. The strongest relationship was between CO and H2S. Temperature and CH4 were also important. This indicates that incomplete combustion and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) formation are likely occurring, setting the stage for Chapter 3. The objective of Chapter 3 was to identify and define the extent of soil and water hydrocarbon contamination at the Truman Shepherd and Lotts Creek coal fires in eastern Kentucky. No groundwater contamination was detected at either location. Soil contamination was found at both, but was much higher at Lotts Creek, potentially because of sorption onto soil organic matter (which is reduced at Truman Shepherd by an excavation attempt) and other physicochemical mechanisms. Soil contamination was localized to relatively small areas around coal-fire vents. Based on the results, future studies should consider: Attempting to duplicate these results in other geologic regions Quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from coal fires to consider their contribution to climate change. Coal-fired power plants are regulated, but coal fires, which produce many more harmful gases, are not Determining the feasibility of an oxygen-injection system to engender more complete combustion, therefore possibly reducing harmful gases Determining the feasibility of electricity production from coal fires Adopting a consistent federal coal-fire policy

Recently, the high radiance of synchrotron sources was used to enhance FTIR spectrometer performance. However, excessive channel spectra when synchrotron sources are used degrade the quality of retrieved spectral parameters. In the research reported in this thesis, seven different techniques for handling channel spectra were investigated. These techniques were used to reduce channel spectra for a test group of seven samples of CO2 mixed with air recorded using the synchrotron source at the Canadian Light Source. The increases in signal to noise ratio (SNR) of spectra handled with each technique were calculated. SNR results showed that transmission spectra, produced using synthetic background spectra with simulated channel spectra, achieved the highest SNR improvement. However, when the spectra groups were fitted using nonlinear least square fit algorithm, the technique using channel spectra fitting produced the smallest fitting residual. Moreover, the retrieved intensities and air broadening coefficients of 21 spectral lines showed that the spectral fitting technique produced the most accurate values as compared to the HITRAN 2008 database. Although the spectral fitting technique was accurate in retrieving spectral line parameters, applying the technique at wider spectral ranges was less accurate. A modification to the channel spectra fitting technique by performing iterations of channel fitting was introduced to process wider spectral ranges. Carbon dioxide laser band I centred at 961 wavenumber was analyzed using 24 spectra recorded under different experimental conditions. The intensity and air-and self-broadening coefficients were retrieved for 48 spectral lines with average deviations from HITRAN database values of 2.11%, 1.25% and 4.14%, respectively, using the Voigt profile. These average deviations lie within the uncertainty limits listed by the database. The deviation between our results and other results reported in the literature were also examined and it is found to be also within the range of HITRAN uncertainties. The effect of errors in fitting channel spectra parameters was examined and found to be mitigated by the inclusion of channel-free spectra in the multispectral fit. / xiv, 134 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm

Along with increasing awareness of the realities of environmental degradation and climate change, governments around the world are now implementing strategies aimed at mitigating and adapting to these changes. While a significant effort is being made to negotiate environmental and climate politics at the international level, the importance of local environmental and climate governance has received more attention recently, as it is acknowledged that both the causes and the impacts of climate change and environmental degradation inevitably originate and happen locally. This dissertation aims to contribute to the research on climate change mitigation and adaptation in the African context through the analysis of local environmental and climate governance and governmentality in eThekwini municipality in South Africa. The aim of the study was to explore environmental governmentality in eThekwini municipality, by reflecting on the processes and outcomes of the COP17/CMP7 Responsible Accommodation Campaign, a part of the Greening COP17/CMP7 programme in Durban in 2011. Within this there were five main objectives: 1) to describe the current state of environmental and climate governance in eThekwini municipality, 2) to identify and explore the factors driving the COP17/CMP7 Responsible Accommodation Campaign, 3) to describe and evaluate the outcomes of the COP17/CMP7 Responsible Accommodation Campaign, 4) to reflect on the opportunities and challenges of the COP17/CMP7 Responsible Accommodation Campaign, and 5) to reflect on how the COP17/CMP7 Responsible Accommodation Campaign reveals the form of governmentality present in eThekwini municipality. The research consisted of three parts; observation of the planning processes of the Campaign, qualitative interviews with key stakeholders in the Campaign, and a questionnaire for a sample of the participants of the Campaign. Through an analysis based on the Focaultian governmentality theory, and Bulkeley and Kern’s (2006) local climate governing framework, the study shows that Durban’s environmental governance is mainly in the form of self-governing and governing through enabling, motivated by the ‘rationalities’ of greening the economy and creating a green event destination brand for the city. While these policies are welcomed by a portion of the private sector, this study has found that a broader aspect of governing modes and ‘technologies’ of rule is needed if the policies are to affect the broader population, in this case the hospitality sector. This requires the city government to continue to take responsibility as a leader of environmental and climate governance, and move towards a mode of governing that also involves the provision of incentives and services that enable more responsible business and individual practices in the city. The findings of this study provide useful insights into the needs of the hospitality sector specifically, as well as the form of governmentality in the city in general, that can inform future climate policy making in Durban. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

This research analyzes fuel consumption and emissions of Turnpike double trailer combinations (Turnpikes) on a regional network in the Canadian Prairies. The research: (1) establishes current benchmarks for fuel consumption of Turnpikes and five-axle tractor semitrailers (3-S2s) with van trailers; (2) develops fuel consumption models for these vehicle types; (3) establishes an understanding of current operating characteristics of Turnpikes in the region; and (4) estimates their system-wide effects in terms of fuel consumption and emissions in Manitoba by applying the developed models. Canadian Prairie region-based carriers revealed an increase in Turnpike travel (from 2007-2009) of 44 percent after the twinning of the Trans-Canada Highway between Winnipeg and Regina in 2007 was completed. Turnpikes can save one third of fuel consumed when compared to 3-S2s; have higher fuel consumption in the winter months; and their use in 2009 reduced fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by five percent compared to 3-S2s.

The study investigates farmers' decision to afforest marginal agricultural land to create carbon sinks in western Canada. A real option model, which incorporates price risks related to carbon and timber revenues as well as opportunity cost uncertainty, is used to assess the impact of a carbon market on farmers' afforestation decision. Irreversibility of the decision is also modeled by including sunk cost of forest establishment and the cost of reversing the afforestation process. In addition, the non-permanence impact on the profitability of afforestation was analyzed by assessing the effect of two non-permanence carbon accounting schemes. / Results indicate that both, actual non-permanence policies and the presence of real options, have a significant negative impact on afforestation incentives. However, the carbon market has a positive effect as it increases the expected revenues to afforestation and also represents a diversification opportunity. Yet, even in the presence of a carbon market the investment barrier remains considerable. Despite the positive effect of the carbon market, results show that unless carbon prices reach levels well above $100/tC a subsidization of afforestation cost is needed in order to generate substantial GHG abatement from marginal agricultural land afforestation in western Canada.

The consequences of land use choices on soil water and gas transport properties are significant for gas and water flux in agricultural environments. Spatial and temporal patterns and associations of soil water and soil gas characteristics and processes in different land uses are not well understood. The objectives of this study were to 1) characterize soil structure under crop and grass systems, 2) quantify spatial patterns and associations of soil physical characteristics in crop and grass systems, and 3) quantify spatial and temporal patterns and associations of CO2 and N2O fluxes. The research was conducted in a 60 by 80 m field divided into grass and crop systems. Sixty sampling points were distributed in four transects with 5- and 1-m spatial intervals between measurement points. Gas fluxes were measured, at two-week time intervals, 22 times during a year. Pore size distribution was more homogeneous and more continuous pores were found in the grass than in the crop system. The spatial variability of most selected soil physical characteristics was more structured in the crop than in the grass system, which reflected the impact of land use and soil structure on their spatial patterns. CO2 flux was dependent for a longer distance in the grass than in the crop system, however, the two land-use systems exhibited similar spatial ranges of N2O flux. Gas fluxes were temporally dependent for a longer period in the grass than in the crop system. The spatial associations between CO2 and N2O fluxes and selected biochemical and physical factors depended on the flux sampling season and land use. Soil temperature was the dominant controlling factor on the temporal variability of CO2 and N2O fluxes but not on the spatial behavior. Considering the spatial and temporal ranges and dependency strength of soil variables helps identify efficient sampling designs that can result in better time and resource management. Spatial and temporal relationships between the selected soil variables also improve understanding soil management and sampling soil variables. This study provides the baseline and recommendations for future investigations specifically for sampling designs, soil management, and predictions of different soil processes related to gas fluxes.