Road traffic dominates in domestic Swedish transportation and is highly dependent on fossil fuels, petrol and diesel. Currently, the use of renewable fuels in transportation accounts for less than 6% of the total energy use in transport. The demand for bioethanol to fuel transportation is growing and cannot be met through current domestic production alone. Lignocellulosic ethanol derived from agricultural crop residues may be a feasible alternative source of ethanol for securing a consistent regional fuel supply in Swedish climatic conditions.  This licentiate thesis focuses on regional transport fuel supply by considering local small-scale ethanol production from straw. It presents the results of investigations of regional transport fuel supply with respect to minimising regional CO2 emissions, cost estimates for transport fuel supply, and the availability of lignocellulosic resources for small-scale ethanol production. Regional transport fuel demand between the present and 2020 is also estimated. The results presented here show that significant bioethanol can be produced from the straw and Salix available in the studied regions and that this is sufficient to meet the regions’ current ethanol fuel demand.  A cost optimisation model for regional transport fuel supply is developed and applied for two cases in one study region, one when the ethanol production plant is integrated with an existing CHP plant (polygeneration), and one with a standalone ethanol production plant. The results of the optimisation model show that in both cases the changes in ethanol production costs have the biggest influence on the cost of supplying the regional passenger car fleet with transport fuel, followed by the petrol price and straw production costs.  By integrating the ethanol production process with a CHP plant, the costs of supplying regional passenger car fleet with transport fuel can be reduced by up to a third. Moreover, replacing petrol fuel with ethanol can cut regional CO2 emissions from transportation by half.

Climate change is a critical sustainable development issue with implications for the environment, economies and society as we know it. The problem of climate change is caused by some countries in parts of the world that has a direct effect on people and natural resources in other parts of the world. Climate change is the effect of increased production of Greenhouse gases (GHGs). Due to the vast complexity of the climate change regime the study does not attempt to be comprehensive or conclusive. The aim of the study is to critically evaluate and determine the purpose, enforceability, legal nature, shortcomings and strengths of the non-binding Copenhagen Accord and how the international climate change regime will evolve after the Copenhagen Accord. The study starts with a brief explanation of the international climate change regime and its development, including international environmental law principles, specifically the common but differentiated responsibility principle. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has the ultimate objective to achieve the stabilisation of GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The Conference of the Parties (COPs) is the ultimate decision-making and supreme body of the UNFCCC and is authorised to make and implement decisions to promote the implementation of the UNFCCC, it further has the power to adopt new protocols under the UNFCCC and plays a substantial role in the development of new obligations by the parties to the convention. Various COPs, their respective adopted decisions and resolutions which played an important role in the development of the climate change regime are discussed. This includes COP 1 that lead to the Berlin Mandate; COP 3 and the Kyoto Protocol; COP 7 and the Marrakech Accords; COP 11 that marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol; COP 13 and the Bali Action Plan. COP 15 in Copenhagen was internationally expected and intended to be the breakthrough in addressing the post 2012 period. As is evident from the content of this study the result of COP 15 at Copenhagen means different challenges for different countries and the “bottom up” architecture of the accord could help encourage and reinforce national actions. An overview of the effect of the Copenhagen Accord on the climate change regime, with specific reference to COP 16 in Cancun, is then done. The “bottom up” architecture of the Copenhagen Accord was brought into the official UNFCCC process by the Cancun Agreements that were reached at COP 16. The study mostly comprised of a literature study, which reviewed the relevant international environmental law dealing with climate change, taking into account customary international law; international treaties and conventions; government documents, policies and reports; textbooks and academic journals as well as electronic material obtained from various internet sources. / Thesis (LLM (Environmental Law and Governance))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Climate change is a critical sustainable development issue with implications for the environment, economies and society as we know it. The problem of climate change is caused by some countries in parts of the world that has a direct effect on people and natural resources in other parts of the world. Climate change is the effect of increased production of Greenhouse gases (GHGs). Due to the vast complexity of the climate change regime the study does not attempt to be comprehensive or conclusive. The aim of the study is to critically evaluate and determine the purpose, enforceability, legal nature, shortcomings and strengths of the non-binding Copenhagen Accord and how the international climate change regime will evolve after the Copenhagen Accord. The study starts with a brief explanation of the international climate change regime and its development, including international environmental law principles, specifically the common but differentiated responsibility principle. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has the ultimate objective to achieve the stabilisation of GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The Conference of the Parties (COPs) is the ultimate decision-making and supreme body of the UNFCCC and is authorised to make and implement decisions to promote the implementation of the UNFCCC, it further has the power to adopt new protocols under the UNFCCC and plays a substantial role in the development of new obligations by the parties to the convention. Various COPs, their respective adopted decisions and resolutions which played an important role in the development of the climate change regime are discussed. This includes COP 1 that lead to the Berlin Mandate; COP 3 and the Kyoto Protocol; COP 7 and the Marrakech Accords; COP 11 that marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol; COP 13 and the Bali Action Plan. COP 15 in Copenhagen was internationally expected and intended to be the breakthrough in addressing the post 2012 period. As is evident from the content of this study the result of COP 15 at Copenhagen means different challenges for different countries and the “bottom up” architecture of the accord could help encourage and reinforce national actions. An overview of the effect of the Copenhagen Accord on the climate change regime, with specific reference to COP 16 in Cancun, is then done. The “bottom up” architecture of the Copenhagen Accord was brought into the official UNFCCC process by the Cancun Agreements that were reached at COP 16. The study mostly comprised of a literature study, which reviewed the relevant international environmental law dealing with climate change, taking into account customary international law; international treaties and conventions; government documents, policies and reports; textbooks and academic journals as well as electronic material obtained from various internet sources. / Thesis (LLM (Environmental Law and Governance))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study aims to evaluate the emission of methane (CH4) generated in an anaerobic stabilization pond used to treat wastewater from a cattle slaughterhouse, which is located in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul (RS). In addition to the quantification of CH4 by gas chromatography, it was evaluated the emissions of other greenhouse effect gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O). It was verified the occurrence of two types of fluxes for a release of produced methane: the diffusive, with a daily average equal to 196.0 ± 51 mgCH4m-2h-1; and the ebullient, resulting of the random and sudden release of gases in the form of bubbles with variations between 67.0 and 1295.0 mgCH4m-2h-1. The flow rates values calculated from theoretical models presented significantly higher than the experimental ones, ranging from 387.0 to 410.0 mgCH4m-2h-1, since it was not taken into account the different variables of interference in anaerobic treatment, such as the needs and interactions between bacteria, dilution of the wastewater, and physical-chemical factors. The data revealed a higher production of CO2 (55 vol%) than CH4 (45 vol%) indicating reduction in the production of CH4 and its partial oxidation caused by oscillation in the layer of foam found during the research period. The presence of N2O in the samples indicated the presence of O2 dissolved in the wastewater. The results of this study evidenced that the anaerobic ponds constitute important sources of GHG, emphasizing the importance to control the use of this technology, as a way of mitigating the emission of gaseous compounds into the atmosphere and contribute to reducing the possible negative effects in the environment. / Este trabalho objetiva avaliar a emissão de metano (CH4) gerado em uma lagoa de estabilização anaeróbia utilizada no tratamento de águas residuárias de um abatedouro de bovinos, o qual está localizado no município de Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul (RS). Adicionalmente à quantificação do CH4 por cromatografia gasosa, foi avaliada a emissão de outros gases de efeito estufa (GEE), tais como o dióxido de carbono (CO2) e o óxido nitroso (N2O). Foi verificada a ocorrência de dois tipos de fluxos para a liberação de metano produzido: o difusivo, com média diária igual a 196,0 ± 51 mgCH4m-2h-1; e o ebulitivo, resultante da liberação aleatória e súbita de gases na forma de borbulhas, com variações entre 67,0 e 1.295,0 mgCH4m-2h-1. Os valores de fluxos calculados a partir de modelos teóricos apresentaram-se sensivelmente maiores do que os experimentais, variando de 387,0 a 410,0 mgCH4m-2h-1, uma vez que não levaram em conta as diferentes variáveis de interferência no tratamento anaeróbio, como as necessidades e interações entre bactérias, diluição do efluente líquido, e fatores físico-químicos. Os dados revelaram uma maior produção de CO2 (55 vol%) do que de CH4 (45 vol%) indicando redução na produção de CH4 ou sua oxidação parcial causada por oscilação na camada de escuma verificada durante o período da pesquisa. A presença de N2O nas amostras indicou a presença de O2 dissolvido no efluente. Os resultados obtidos nesse estudo evidenciam que as lagoas anaeróbias constituem importantes fontes de GEE, ressaltando a importância no controle na utilização dessa tecnologia, como uma forma de mitigar a emissão de compostos gasosos para a atmosfera e contribuir para a redução nos possíveis efeitos negativos sobre o meio ambiente.

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Agradecemos a compreensão. on 2017-05-03T14:28:34Z (GMT) / Submitted by KELLY RIBEIRO null (kelly_ribeiiro6@hotmail.com) on 2017-05-04T00:16:29Z No. of bitstreams: 1 versao_final_Kelly_Ribeiro.pdf: 2763989 bytes, checksum: eab03130a0eef9642dcfed0d2e5510b0 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-05-05T13:13:11Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 ribeiro_k_me_bauru.pdf: 2763989 bytes, checksum: eab03130a0eef9642dcfed0d2e5510b0 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-05T13:13:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ribeiro_k_me_bauru.pdf: 2763989 bytes, checksum: eab03130a0eef9642dcfed0d2e5510b0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-03 / O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar, possíveis alterações no padrão de emissão de gases de efeito estufa (CO2, CH4 e N2O) associadas à substituição da cobertura vegetal nativa por sistemas agropastoris no bioma Caatinga, durante os anos de 2013 e 2014. Esta região apresenta características fisionômicas únicas e abrange 11 % do território do país (850.000 km2) . Comportando 27 milhões de pessoas, a Caatinga é considerada a região semiárida mais populosa do mundo, o que a deixa vulnerável a processos de uso intensificados dos recursos naturais, resultando em graves problemas ambientais de degradação do solo e mudança da cobertura e uso da terra. A agropecuária se destaca como a principal atividade da população rural e impulsiona a mudança sistemática da vegetação nativa por sistemas agropastoris que atualmente cobrem cerca de 27 % do bioma Caatinga (201.786 m²) . Esta drástica alteração na cobertura do solo, em condições de baixa disponibilidade nutricional nos solos e irregularidade na distribuição anual da precipitação, leva à degradação do meio com efeitos diretos na dinâmica dos fluxos de CO2, CH4 e N2O. Este experimento foi realizado no município de São João, Pernambuco (8°52’30”S, 36°22’00”O), em neossolo regolítico com textura predominantemente arenosa. As coletas foram realizadas em 2013 e 2014, nas estações secas e chuvosas, afim de se observar a influência sazonal no processo de formação dos gases. Os fluxos foram medidos utilizando câmaras estáticas de PVC com coleta de amostras em períodos de 30 minutos por câmara, em solos cobertos por vegetação nativa e pastagem, distribuídos em 3 blocos (repetições) para cada estação. Os resultados mostram fluxos médios de N2O de 0,3± 0,03 mg.m2.d-1 na área coberta por pastagem e 0,23± 0,02 mg.m2.d-1 na área coberta por vegetação nativa, e e não apresentaram diferenças significativas entre eles. As maiores emissões de N2O foram observadas nas estações secas, mostrando a forte influencia da temperatura no ciclo do nitrogênio. As emissões médias de CO2 foram de 6,1± 3,6 mg.m2.d-1 e 6,1± 3,7 mg.m2.d-1 na pastagem e Caatinga, respectivamente. As maiores emissões de CO2 foram observadas na área coberta com Caatinga em 2013, que foram influenciados significativamente pela temperatura do solo, mostrando uma relação inversamente proporcional. Os fluxos de metano variaram de 0,4± 0,2 mg.m2.d-1 e 0,3± 0,1 mg.m2.d-1 no pasto e Caatinga, respectivamente. Os fluxos apresentarem grandes variações ao longo do experimento, sofrendo influencia significativa das condições edáficas e ambientais do meio. / The present work had as objective to evaluate possible changes in the greenhouse gas emission pattern associated with the replacement of native vegetation cover by agropastoral systems in the Caatinga biome during the years of 2013 and 2014. This region has unique physiognomic characteristics and covers 11% of the country's territory (850,000 km2). With 27 million people, the Caatinga is considered the most populous semi-arid region in the world, leaving it vulnerable to intensified natural resource use processes, resulting in serious environmental problems of land degradation and land cover and land use change. Agriculture stands out as the main activity of the rural population and promotes the systematic change of native vegetation by agropastoral systems that currently cover about 27% of the Caatinga biome (201,786 m²). This drastic change in soil cover, under conditions of low nutritional availability in soils and irregularity in the annual distribution of precipitation, leads to the degradation of the environment with direct effects on the dynamics of CO2, CH4 and N2O flows. This experiment was carried out in the municipality of São João, Pernambuco (8 ° 52'30 "S, 36 ° 22'00" W), in a regolithic soil with predominantly sandy texture. The collections were carried out in 2013 and 2014, in the dry and rainy seasons, in order to observe the seasonal influence on the gas formation process. The flows were measured using static PVC cameras with sample collection in periods of 30 minutes per chamber, in soils covered by native vegetation and pasture, distributed in 3 blocks (repetitions) for each season. The results show mean N2O flows of 0.3 ± 0.03 mg.m2.d-1 in the pasture area and 0.23 ± 0.02 mg.m2.d-1 in the area covered by native vegetation, and Did not present significant differences between them. The highest N2O emissions were observed in dry seasons, showing the strong influence of temperature on the nitrogen cycle. The average CO2 emissions were 6.1 ± 3.6 mg.m2.d-1 and 6.1 ± 3.7 mg.m2.d-1 in pasture and Caatinga, respectively. The highest CO2 emissions were observed in the area covered with Caatinga in 2013, which were significantly influenced by the soil temperature, showing an inversely proportional relation. The methane fluxes ranged from 0.4 ± 0.2 mg.m2.d-1 and 0.3 ± 0.1 mg.m2.d-1 in the pasture and Caatinga, respectively. The fluxes presented great variations throughout the experiment, suffering significant influence of the soil and environmental conditions of the environment.

Fossil fuel depletion, economic development, urban expansion and climate change present tough challenges to municipal- and regional-scale energy systems. Regional energy system planning, including waste treatment, renewable energy supply, energy efficiency, and climate change, are considered essential to meet these challenges and move toward a sustainable society. This thesis includes studies on energy system from municipal waste, potential for a fossil fuel-independent regional energy system with increased renewable energy products using waste as one of energy sources, and the performance of biomass-fired combined heat and power (CHP) plants. A top-down method is adopted to organize the studies, from national waste-to-energy (WtE) scenarios to individual energy plants. The first study considers the overall potential contribution of WtE to energy supply and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions mitigation in Sweden until 2050 under several different scenarios. Depending on WtE scenario considered, the study shows that WtE can supply energy between 38 and 186 TWh and mitigate between CO2 of 1 and 12 Mt per year by 2050 based on the baseline of year 2010. At a regional level, static and dynamic optimization models with a focus on WtE are developed for two regions in Sweden and Finland. The former is used to investigate the possibilities of optimal positioning of new energy plants, retrofitting existing energy plants and planting energy crops. The latter case study is on regional heat and power production using biogas generated from agricultural and livestock wastes. Centralized biogas production units perform better than distributed production regarding energy and carbon balance though the net energy output is negligible. However, a significant GHG emission can be reduced compared to the present status. Retrofitting existing conventional CHP plants is another option for improving regional energy system. The study shows that integrating heat-demanded processes such as drying, bioethanol and pellet production with existing CHP plants can improve overall energy efficiency and power output, increase annual operation time and reduce production cost as well as mitigate GHG emissions.  It is recommended that building new WtE/energy plants at optimum sites, upgrading the existing energy plants, expanding the agricultural/forestry waste/residues output (biomass) and planting more energy crops shall be taken into considerations for the future regional energy systems. / Utarmning av fossila bränslekällor, ekonomisk utveckling, städernas utbredning och klimatförändring är svåra utmaningar för kommunala- och regionala energisystem. Planering av det regionala energisystemet, inklusive avfallshantering, förnyelsebara energikällor, energieffektivisering och hänsyn till klimatförändringar, anses avgörande för att möta dessa utmaningar och gå mot ett hållbart samhälle. Denna avhandling innehåller studier av energisystem centrerad kring hushållsavfall, potentialet för fossilbränslefria regionala energisystem som utnyttjar ökad andel förnyelsebara energiprodukter med avfall som en energikälla och prestandautvärdering av ett biomassa-eldat kraftvärmeverk. Studierna har organiserats efter storlek på system, från nationella avfall-till-energi scenarier till enskilda kraftverk.   Den första studien behandlar övergripande möjligheten att genom avfall-till-energi bidra till energiförsörjningen och begränsa utsläppet av växthusgaser i Sverige till 2050 under flera olika scenarier. Beroendet på avfall-till-energiscenario visar studien att genom att utnyttja avfall kan mellan 38 och 186 TWh energi levereras och dessutom kan koldioxidutsläppen reduceras med 1-12 miljoner ton till år 2050 med 2010 som basår.   På den regionala nivån, statiska och dynamiska optimeringsmodeller, med fokus på avfall-till-energi, är utvecklats för två regioner, en i Sverige och en i Finland. Det första modellen används för hitta den optimala placeringen av nya energianläggningar, anpassning av befintliga anläggningar och placering av odlingar av energigrödor. Den senare ingår i en fallstudie av den regionala kraft- och värmeproduktionen genom utnyttjande av biogas producerad från jordbruksavfall och djurgödsel. Centraliserade biogasanläggningar presterar bättre än decentraliserad anläggningar när det gäller energi – och kolbalanser även om i båda fallen så är skillnaden mellan konsumerad mängd bränsle, värme och el och producerad värme och el försumbar. Däremot kan en betydande mängd av växthusgasutsläppet i båda fallen undvikas jämfört med nuläget.   Anpassning av befintliga konventionella kraftvärmeverk är ett annat alternativ för att förbättra det regionala energisystemet. Studien visar att genom att integrera värmekrävande processer såsom torkning, bioetanol- och pelletsproduktion med befintliga kraftvärmeverk kan den totala energieffektiviten och uteffekten förbättras, öka den årliga drifftiden och minska produktionskostnaderna och utsläppen av växthusgaser.   Rekommendationen är att för de framtida regionala energisystemen överväga att bygga nya avfall-till-energianläggningar med optimal placering, uppgradera befintliga energianläggningar utöka insamlandet av avfall/restprodukter från jord- och skogbruk och plantera mer energigrödor.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:52:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RicardoTGA.pdf: 3343340 bytes, checksum: b7d667a5f20a1f26a7371755e94dcc8c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-11-19 / Instituto Federal de Educa??o, Ci?ncia e Tecnologia do Rio Grande do Norte / As a contemporary tendency, it is been evidenced that the environmental changes theme, already admitted as a concernment to international economical and political reality, is also gaining repercussion on industrial and business sector. Firms are implementing actions on trial to minimize their own greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions impacts. However, the great majority of those actions of Corporative Social-Environmental Responsibility (CSR) are referred only to direct emissions of the main production systems. Direct emissions are those derived of an isolate process, without considering the upstream and downstream processes emissions, which respond for the majority of emissions originated because of respective firm‟s production system existence. Because the greenhouse effect occurs globally and the GHG emissions contribute to the environmental changes independently of their origin, it must be taken into account the whole productive life cycle of products and systems, since the energy invested on resources extraction and necessary materials to the final disposal. To do so, it must be investigated all relevant steps of a product/production system life cycle, tracking all activities which emit greenhouse gases, directly or indirectly. This amount of emissions consists in the firm‟s Carbon Footprint. This research purpose is to defend the Carbon Footprint relevance and its adoption viability to be used as an Environmental Indicator on measurement/assessment of CSR. It has been realized a study case on Petrobras‟s seat unity at Natal-Brazil, assessing part of its Carbon Footprint. It has been used the software GEMIS 4.6 to do the emissions quantifying. The items measured were the direct emissions of the own unity vehicles and indirect emissions of offset paper (A4), energy and disposable plastic cups consumed. To 2009, these emissions were 3.811,94 tCO2eq. We may conclude that Carbon Footprint quantification is indispensable to the knowledge of real emissions caused by a productive process existence, must serving as basis to CSR decisions about the environmental changes reversion challenge / Contemporaneamente, se est? constatando que o tema das altera??es clim?ticas, j? integralizado como preocupa??o da realidade pol?tica e econ?mica internacional, vem tamb?m adquirindo abrang?ncia e repercuss?o nos setores industriais e empresariais. As empresas, em seu enquadramento no novo conceito de combate ? mudan?a do clima, t?m adotado algumas medidas na tentativa de minimizar os impactos das suas pr?prias emiss?es de Gases Efeito Estufa (GEE). Contudo, a grande maioria das a??es de Responsabilidade Socioambiental Empresarial (RSE) quanto a essa tem?tica referem-se apenas ?s emiss?es diretas dos principais processos produtivos empresariais. As emiss?es diretas s?o aquelas derivadas de um processo isolado, sem considerar os processos upstream e downstream, os quais respondem pela a maior parte das emiss?es derivadas da exist?ncia de uma determinada empresa. Haja vista que o efeito estufa sobrev?m de forma global, e que as emiss?es de GEE contribuem para as mudan?as clim?ticas independentemente de sua origem, deve-se levar em considera??o todo o ciclo de vida produtivo de produtos e processos, desde a energia investida na extra??o da mat?ria-prima e insumos necess?rios at? o descarte final. Para se fazer isso, deve-se esquadrinhar todos os passos relevantes ao longo do ciclo de vida de um produto/processo produtivo, rastreando todas as atividades que emitam direta ou indiretamente GEE. O somat?rio dessas consiste justamente na Pegada de Carbono da empresa. A finalidade desse estudo ? defender a relev?ncia da Pegada de Carbono e viabilidade de ado??o desta para ser usada como Indicador de Sustentabilidade na avalia??o/mensura??o da RSE. Para isso, foi realizado um estudo de caso na unidade sede da Petrobras em Natal-RN, avaliando-se parte de sua Pegada de Carbono. Para a quantifica??o das emiss?es, foi utilizado o software GEMIS 4.6. Os itens medidos foram as emiss?es diretas dos ve?culos pr?prios da unidade e emiss?es indiretas do papel offset A4, energia el?trica e copos pl?sticos descart?veis consumidos. Para o exerc?cio de 2009, mensuramos a emiss?o de 3.811,94 tCO2eq. Conclu?mos que a aferi??o da Pegada de Carbono ? imprescind?vel para conhecimento das emiss?es reais causadas pela exist?ncia de um processo produtivo, devendo servir de base para a tomada de decis?es de RSE quanto ao desafio da revers?o das mudan?as clim?ticas

Research on historical developments that lead to the establishment of global organizations for climate change has shown that the phenomenon of surface temperature is not a new topic of focus. Increased policy restrictions, brand image, fear of resource scarcity, growing market trends towards sustainability and consumer awareness are among the several external factors that have influenced the growing research in corporate transition towards carbon neutrality. The main aim of this study is to understand through data accounting of major material and energy carrier changes, how a non-production facility could transition to become a carbon-neutral facility. Therefore, an exploratory case study has been performed and conducted at Volvo CE Customer center in Eskilstuna, Sweden, with two objectives: i) to identify and quantify the customer center current footprint by mapping the main contributors to greenhouse gases emissions, and ii) to recommend specific & general measures that can mitigate the carbon footprint of the facility. Three research questions related to the facility’s current carbon footprint, measures implemented so far, and the best applied assessment method, have guided us throughout the study. The methodology has been framed to give a theoretical underpinning for understanding the project from a holistic perspective. The split of the methodology has been constructed in line with the theoretical framework that gave the foundation to the needed theories to be taken into account i.e. GHG protocol, which is the tool that has been adopted by the study to attain the desired aim, including the three scopes under the protocol which were also defined accordingly. ‘Scope 1’ has been taken into account and is a representation of direct emissions, ‘Scope 2 represents the indirect emissions, and ‘Scope 3’ (according to the GHG protocol) takes into account the rest of the indirect emissions arranged into 15 categories, from which applicable to our study were 4 categories (1, 3, 4 and 6). The results showed that during the base year (2019) the highest user within Scope 1 was diesel, followed by HVO, and under Scope 2, The results from Scope 1 and 2, together with the results of Scope 3 category, were analyzed using the attributional LCA approach recommended by the GHG protocol to calculate their contribution to the customer centers’ total carbon footprint. It was found that Scope 1 stands for 128.52 t CO₂-eq while Scope 2 stands only for 1.16 t CO₂-eq and finally Scope 3 stands for most of the emissions with 3719 t CO₂-eq. It has been found that in 2019, the customer center has saved 101.05 tonnes of GHG by implementing measures, such as switching from using Diesel to HVO and switching from the mixed electricity to the renewable ones, according to the attributional perspective presented in the GHG protocol. However, different results were found when these values were discussed and analyzed from the consequential perspective, since this perspective analyses the effects of the implemented measures on the global emission level. This concluded that implementation of conservation and efficiency measures must take priority before switching to higher priced renewables. Thus, the resulting carbon neutrality will be consequentially safer. The recommendations stated in this study also follows the same principle “Conserve before investing”. Suggestions and recommendations outlined in the study for future implementation approach carbon neutrality as a strategy and not a burden, helping the customer neutral achieve the goal in an Environment, Economic and Socially sustainable manner.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Actualmente, los responsables de tomar decisiones contra el cambio climático carecen de herramientas para desarrollar inventarios de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) con suficiente rigor científico-técnico y precisión para priorizar e invertir los recursos disponibles de manera eficiente en las medidas necesarias para luchar contra el cambio climático. Por ello, en esta tesis se expone el desarrollo de un sistema de información territorial y sectorial (SITE) para monitorear las emisiones de GEI que sirva como herramienta de gobernanza climática local y regional. SITE combina las ventajas de los enfoques metodológicos descendente o top-down (de arriba hacia abajo) y ascendente o bottom-up (de abajo hacia arriba), para lograr un enfoque híbrido innovador para contabilizar y gestionar de manera eficiente las emisiones de GEI. Por tanto, en esta tesis se definen los diferentes desarrollos metodológicos, tanto generales como específicos de sectores clave del Panel Intergubernamental de Cambio Climático (IPPC) (edificación, transporte, sector forestal, etc.), un desarrollo informático para la parte de SITE que se ejecuta del lado del servidor, que de ahora en adelante denominaremos back-end del sistema, y siete implementaciones como casos de estudio representativos, a diferentes escalas y aplicados sobre diferentes sectores. Estas implementaciones a diferentes escalas y sectores demuestran el potencial del sistema como herramienta de apoyo en la toma de decisión contra el cambio climático a nivel regional y local. Las diferentes implementaciones en casos piloto representativos, tanto a nivel regional en la Comunitat Valenciana como a nivel local en municipios grandes (València) y medianos (Quart de Poblet y Llíria) muestran el potencial de adaptación territorial y sectorial que tiene la herramienta. Las metodologías desarrolladas para los sectores específicos de tráfico rodado, edificación o sector forestal, ofrecen cuantificaciones con una resolución espacial con gran capacidad de optimizar las políticas locales y regionales. Por tanto, la herramienta cuenta con un gran potencial de escalabilidad y gran capacidad de mejora continua mediante la inclusión de nuevos enfoques metodológicos, adaptación de las metodologías a la disponibilidad de datos, metodologías concretas para sectores clave y actualización a las mejores metodologías disponibles derivadas de actividades de investigación de la comunidad científica. / [CA] Actualment, els responsables de prendre decisions contra el canvi climàtic no tenen eines per aconseguir inventaris d'emissions de gasos d'efecte hivernacle (GEH) amb prou cientificotècnic rigor, precisió i integritat per invertir els recursos disponibles de manera eficient en les mesures necessàries contra el canvi climàtic. Per això, en aquesta tesis se exposa el desenvolupa un sistema d'informació territorial i sectorial (SITE) per monitoritzar les emissions de GEH com a eina de governança climàtica local i regional. Aquest sistema combina els avantatges dels enfocaments metodològics descendent o top-down (de dalt a baix) i ascendent o bottom-up (de baix a dalt), per aconseguir un enfocament híbrid innovador per comptabilitzar i gestionar de manera eficient les emissions de GEH. Per tant, en aquesta tesi doctoral es descriuen els diferents desenvolupaments metodològics, tant generals com específics de sectors clau del Panel Intergovernamental contra el Canvi Climàtic (edificació, transport, forestal, etc.), un desenvolupament informàtic per al back-end del sistema i set implementacions com a casos d'estudi representatius, a diferents escales, amb els diferents enfocaments metodològics i aplicats sobre diferents sectors. Això queda descrit en sis capítols. Aquestes implementacions a diferents escales i sectors demostren el potencial del sistema com a eina de suport en la presa de decisió contra el canvi climàtic a nivell regional i local. Les diferents implementacions en casos pilot representatius, tant a nivell regional a la Comunitat Valenciana com a nivell local en municipis grans (València) i mitjans (Quart de Poblet i Llíria,) mostren el potencial d'adaptació territorial i sectorial que té l'eina. Les metodologies desenvolupades per als sectors específics de trànsit rodat, edificació i forestal, ofereixen quantificacions amb una resolució espacial amb gran capacitat d'optimitzar les polítiques locals i regionals. Per tant, l'eina compta amb un gran potencial d'escalabilitat i gran capacitat de millora contínua mitjançant la inclusió de nous enfocaments metodològics, adaptació de les metodologies a la disponibilitat de dades, metodologies concretes per a sectors clau, i actualització a les millors metodologies disponibles derivades de activitats de investigació de la comunitat científica. / [EN] Currently, regional and local decision-makers lack of tools to achieve greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions inventories with enough rigor, accuracy and completeness in order to prioritize available resources efficiently against climate change. Thus, in this thesis the development of a territorial and sectoral information system (SITE) to monitor GHG emissions as a local and regional climate governance tool is exposed. This system combines the advantages of both, top-down and bottom-up approaches, to achieve an innovative hybrid approach to account and manage efficiently GHG emissions. Furthermore, this thesis defines the methodologies developed, a computer proposal for the back-end of the system and seven implementations as representative case studies at different scales (local and regional level), with the different methodological approaches and applied to different sectors. Thus, these implementations demonstrate the potential of the system as decision-making tool against climate change at the regional and local level as climate governance tool. The different implementations in representative pilot cases, both at the regional level in the Valencian Community and at the local level in large (Valencia) and medium-sized municipalities (Quart de Poblet and Llíria) demonstrate the potential for territorial and sectoral adaptation of the system developed. The methodologies developed for the specific sectors of road transport, building and forestry, offer quantifications with a spatial resolution with a great capacity to optimize local and regional policies. Therefore, the tool has a great potential for scalability and a great capacity for continuous improvement through the inclusion of new methodological approaches, adapting the methodologies to the availability of data, specific methodologies for key sectors, and updating to the best methodologies available in the scientific community. / Lorenzo Sáez, E. (2022). Desarrollo de una herramienta integral de gestión de gases de efecto invernadero para la toma de decisión contra el cambio climático a nivel regional y local en la Comunitat Valenciana [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/181662 / TESIS / Compendio

[ES] Los estudios realizados en el pasado han demostrado que, a pesar de tener cero emisiones del tubo de escape, un vehículo completamente eléctrico tiene emisiones durante el ciclo de vida. El desarrollo tecnológico a lo largo de los años por parte de la humanidad ha llevado constantemente a un aumento de la dependencia energética. Desafortunadamente, esta energía proviene principalmente de fuentes fósiles. Uno de los principales consumidores de energía de origen fósil es la industria del transporte, que utiliza petróleo y diesel como combustibles. Estos combustibles se queman en motores de combustión interna para producir energía debido a su alto poder calorífico. Dado que estos son combustibles a base de carbono, genera dióxido de carbono durante el proceso, que es un gas de efecto invernadero. Por lo tanto, ha habido un seguimiento y una regulación muy estrictos de los tubos de escape de los automóviles a lo largo de los años. Recientemente, diferentes regiones del mundo han planeado prohibir la venta de vehículos convencionales basados en motores de combustión interna. Por lo tanto, vender solo vehículos con cero emisiones de escape, como vehículos eléctricos de batería y vehículos eléctricos de pila de combustible. Esto se debe principalmente a la intensidad de las emisiones de la combinación de electricidad, para alimentar las baterías y el proceso de fabricación de baterías para vehículos eléctricos de batería. Mientras que los vehículos eléctricos de pila de combustible dependen de la intensidad de emisión de la producción de hidrógeno. Dado que la producción actual de hidrógeno es muy limitada y tiene un alto contenido de carbono, los vehículos eléctricos de batería son los preferidos para reemplazar a los vehículos con motor de combustión interna. Otra razón detrás del impulso de este cambio es la alta eficiencia de los sistemas de propulsión eléctricos. A pesar de eso, es muy difícil para los vehículos eléctricos de batería igualar el rango de conducción de los vehículos con motor de combustión interna debido a la gran diferencia en la densidad de energía de las baterías y los combustibles líquidos. En condiciones reales de conducción, este rango de conducción es aún más reducido, a pesar de tener grandes paquetes de baterías a bordo. Esta es una limitación importante para el uso de vehículos eléctricos de batería, hasta que se desarrolle una infraestructura de carga extensa. Por ello, en esta tesis se evalúa el potencial de reducción de emisiones de los vehículos eléctricos con un enfoque de ciclo de vida para turismos y autobuses. Esto se hace comparando sus emisiones con las de los vehículos diésel convencionales y eléctricos híbridos para ciclos de conducción reales utilizando simulaciones numéricas 0D. Esto se complementa con estudios del costo del ciclo de vida de los diferentes vehículos para ver qué opción de tren motriz puede ser más eficiente. Además, los combustibles sintéticos bajos en carbono también se están evaluando como una solución alternativa para reemplazar el combustible diesel y ver el cambio que puede traer al ciclo de vida de los vehículos con motor de combustión interna. Estas evaluaciones se realizan para diferentes ubicaciones a nivel mundial para observar los factores locales que afectan los resultados. Por lo tanto, este trabajo tiene como objetivo evaluar los resultados del ciclo de vida para los responsables políticos y los fabricantes de automóviles a nivel mundial, tanto de las emisiones como del costo, asociados con cada opción de tren motriz. Como resultado de esta investigación, se observan varios desafíos relacionados con los vehículos eléctricos de batería que deben abordarse antes de su adopción masiva. Por lo tanto, se propone el uso de vehículos híbridos como una solución a corto plazo para abordar la urgencia de reducción de emisiones globales. Lo cual, de hecho, también puede considerarse una solución a largo plazo si funciona con combustibles bajos en carbono. / [CA] Els estudis realitzats en el passat han demostrat que, malgrat tenir zero emissions del tub d'escapament, un vehicle completament elèctric té emissions durant el cicle de vida. El desenvolupament tecnològic al llarg dels anys per part de la humanitat ha portat constantment a un augment de la dependència energètica. Desafortunadament, aquesta energia prové principalment de fonts fòssils. Un dels principals consumidors denergia dorigen fòssil és la indústria del transport, que utilitza petroli i dièsel com a combustibles. Aquests combustibles es cremen en motors de combustió interna per produir energia a causa del seu alt poder calorífic. Atès que són combustibles a base de carboni, genera diòxid de carboni durant el procés, que és un gas d'efecte hivernacle. Per tant, hi ha hagut un seguiment i una regulació molt estrictes dels tubs de fuga dels automòbils al llarg dels anys. Recentment, diverses regions del món han planejat prohibir la venda de vehicles convencionals basats en motors de combustió interna. Per tant, vendre només vehicles amb zero emissions d'escapament, com ara vehicles elèctrics de bateria i vehicles elèctrics de pila de combustible. Això es deu principalment a la intensitat de les emissions de la combinació delectricitat, per alimentar les bateries i el procés de fabricació de bateries per a vehicles elèctrics de bateria. Mentres que els vehicles elèctrics de pila de combustible depenen de la intensitat d'emissió de la producció d'hidrogen. Atès que la producció actual dhidrogen és molt limitada i té un alt contingut de carboni, els vehicles elèctrics de bateria són els preferits per reemplaçar els vehicles amb motor de combustió interna. Una altra raó darrere de l¿impuls d¿aquest canvi és l¿alta eficiència dels sistemes de propulsió elèctrics. Tot i això, és molt difícil per als vehicles elèctrics de bateria igualar el rang de conducció dels vehicles amb motor de combustió interna a causa de la gran diferència en la densitat denergia de les bateries i els combustibles líquids. En condicions reals de conducció, aquest rang de conducció encara és més reduït, tot i tenir grans paquets de bateries a bord. Aquesta és una limitació important per a lús de vehicles elèctrics de bateria, fins que es desenvolupi una infraestructura de càrrega extensa. Per això, en aquesta tesi s"avalua el potencial de reducció d"emissions dels vehicles elèctrics amb un enfocament de cicle de vida per a turismes i autobusos. Això es fa comparant les seves emissions amb les dels vehicles dièsel convencionals i elèctrics híbrids per a cicles de conducció reals utilitzant simulacions numèriques 0D. Això es complementa amb estudis del cost del cicle de vida dels diferents vehicles per veure quina opció de tren motriu pot ser més eficient. A més, els combustibles sintètics baixos en carboni també s'estan avaluant com a solució alternativa per reemplaçar el combustible dièsel i veure el canvi que pot portar al cicle de vida dels vehicles amb motor de combustió interna. Aquestes avaluacions es fan per a diferents ubicacions a nivell mundial per observar els factors locals que afecten els resultats. Per tant, aquest treball té per objectiu avaluar els resultats del cicle de vida per als responsables polítics i els fabricants d'automòbils a nivell mundial, tant de les emissions com del cost, associats amb cada opció de tren motriu. Com a resultat d'aquesta investigació, s'observen diversos desafiaments relacionats amb els vehicles elèctrics de bateria que cal abordar abans de la seva adopció massiva. Per tant, es proposa utilitzar vehicles híbrids com una solució a curt termini per abordar la urgència de reducció d'emissions globals. Això, de fet, també es pot considerar una solució a llarg termini si funciona amb combustibles baixos en carboni. / [EN] Several studies in the past have shown that despite having zero tailpipe emissions in a fully electric vehicle, it does have emissions when evaluated on a life cycle basis. Technology development over the years by humankind has constantly led to an increase in energy dependence. Unfortunately, this energy comes mainly from fossil-based sources that are limited. One major consumer of fossil-based energy sources is the transportation industry, which uses fossil-based petrol and diesel as fuels. These fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to produce energy due to their high calorific value. Since these are carbon-based fuels, it generates carbon dioxide during the combustion process, which is a greenhouse gas and leads to global warming. Therefore, there has been very strict monitoring and regulation of its emissions from the automotive tailpipes over the years. In recent years, different regions across the world have planned to completely stop the sale of conventional internal combustion engine-based vehicles. Thus, selling only zero tailpipe emission vehicles such as battery electric vehicles and fuel cell electric vehicles. This is primarily due to the emission intensity of the electricity mix used to power the batteries and from the battery manufacturing process for battery electric vehicles. At the same time, the fuel cell vehicle depends mainly on the emission intensity of hydrogen production. Since current hydrogen production is very limited and carbon-intensive, battery electric vehicles are highly favoured to replace internal combustion engine vehicles soon. Another reason behind the push for this shift is the high efficiency of electric powertrains. Despite that, it is very challenging for battery electric vehicles to match the driving range of internal combustion engine vehicles due to the large difference in the energy density of batteries and liquid fuels, currently. Further, in real driving conditions, this driving range is even more reduced for electric vehicles, even after having large battery packs on board. This is a major limitation for battery electric vehicles, especially for the ones meant for long haul routes, until an extensive charging infrastructure is developed. Therefore, in this thesis, the emission reduction potential of electric vehicles is evaluated following a life cycle approach for passenger cars and city buses. This is done by comparing their emissions with that of conventional diesel and hybrid electric vehicles for real driving cycles by means of 0D numerical simulations. This is complemented with life cycle cost studies for the different vehicles to see which powertrain option can be efficient in terms of emissions but also cost. Moreover, low-carbon synthetic fuels are also evaluated as an alternative drop-in solution to replace diesel fuel and see the change it can bring on a life cycle basis for hybrid and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. These evaluations are done for different locations globally to observe the local factors that affect the results of each powertrain option for the two vehicle segments. Thus, this work is intended to evaluate the life cycle results for the policymakers and automobile manufacturers globally, for the emissions as well as the cost associated with each powertrain option. As an outcome of this research, several challenges are observed related to emissions and cost of the battery electric vehicles that need to be addressed before their mass adoption. Hence, the use of hybrid vehicles as a short-term solution to address the global emission reduction urgency is proposed for the road transportation sector. Which, in fact, may also be considered a long-term solution if powered with low-carbon fuels. / Tripathi, S. (2023). Life Cycle Analysis of Different Powertrain Technologies for Decarbonising Road Transportation [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/196725