No description available.

O aterramento elétrico cumpre uma função essencial em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica, devendo atender, dentre vários requisitos, aqueles estabelecidos quanto aos valores de tensão de passo e de toque. Entretanto, em locais onde o solo apresenta valores elevados de resistividade, surgem dificuldades que nem sempre são superadas no sentido de obedecer às exigências citadas nas normas técnicas e especificações. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto em sistemas de aterramento, visando à redução dos valores de resistência de terra. Inicialmente é abordada uma configuração convencional de malha de aterramento adotada por uma concessionária de energia elétrica, sendo realizados estudos de modo a verificar a influência do espaçamento e da quantidade das hastes nos valores de resistência de terra. São também consideradas modificações nas dimensões da malha e a utilização de hastes profundas e, na seqüência, são analisados os resultados de outras configurações. De modo a verificar a efetividade do uso do concreto, foram realizadas várias simulações computacionais considerando o sistema de aterramento com a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto. Diversas situações foram investigadas, sendo possível concluir que o uso do concreto resulta em menores valores de resistência de terra em relação às malhas convencionais. Esse resultado, de certo modo, vem ao encontro das expectativas, porém deve ser ressaltada a contribuição do trabalho, a qual possibilita a análise, através de cálculos teóricos, do comportamento das malhas de aterramento com o uso do concreto. A literatura pesquisada apresenta poucos resultados teóricos, sendo encontradas algumas investigações nesse tema onde são consideradas somente medições realizadas no campo. / The electrical grounding plays an essential role in a system of electric power distribution, and must follow, among many requirements, those ones established as step voltage values and touch voltage values. However, in those places where the soil has high resistivity values, some difficulties arise and may not always be overcomed in order to follow the requirements set forth in technical standards and specifications. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the use of electrical conductors and rods encased in concrete inside grounding systems, in order to reduce the ground resistance values. Initially it was observed a conventional configuration of grounding grid that is used by an electric utility, and studies were made in order to verify the influence of the number of rods and the distance between them in the values of grounding resistance. There are also been taken into consideration the changes in the grounding grid dimensions and the use of deep rods and, right after, the results of other configurations are analyzed. In order to verify the effectiveness of the use of concrete, several computer simulations were performed considering the grounding system that used conductors and rods encased in concrete. Several situations were investigated, and it was possible to conclude that the use of concrete results in lower values of ground resistance compared to conventional grounding grid. This result, in a certain way, matches with the expectations, but it should be emphasized the contribution of the study which enables, through theoretical calculations, the analysis of the grounding grid behavior with the use of concrete. The literature shows few theoretical results and presents only some researches on this issue in which ones only measurements made in the field are considered.

There is great concern by the power systems utilities related to disturbances that generate induced overvoltages in the power network, as they reach the consumer sensitive equipment, causing damage and losses. In consequence of this framework, the power systems utilities get large financial losses every year due to indemnity for damage to such equipments. Among the disturbances that lead to induced overvoltages are lightning. Thus, in this work it was developed the study and analysis of the lightning´s effect on loads allocated on average (11kV/15kV) and low voltage (below 600V) under the influence caused by the resistance of grounding. For modeling and simulation of the system under analysis, the program for transient study ATP (Alternative Transient Program) was used. To develop the study, it was designed a system comprising of an 88kV transmission line, a substation, a distribution line of 13.8 kV and loads representing residential consumers. It was also analyzed the use of surge suppressor in the low voltage distribution transformers as a way to mitigate the induced overvoltages that reach consumers. / Existe uma grande preocupação por parte das concessionárias de energia relacionada aos distúrbios que geram sobretensões induzidas na rede elétrica, pois estas atingem os equipamentos sensíveis dos consumidores, causando danos e perdas. Em conseqüência deste quadro, as concessionárias contraem grandes prejuízos financeiros todos os anos devido ao ressarcimento por danos a tais equipamentos. Dentre os distúrbios causadores de sobretensões induzidas destacam-se as descargas atmosféricas. Sendo assim, neste trabalho foi desenvolvido o estudo e análise do efeito de descargas atmosféricas em cargas alocadas em média (11kV/15kV) e baixa tensão (abaixo de 600V) relacionada a influência causada pela resistência de aterramento. Para a modelagem e simulações do sistema sob análise utilizou-se o programa para estudo de transitórios ATP (Alternative Transient Program). Para a realização do estudo modelou-se um sistema composto de uma linha de transmissão de 88kV, uma subestação, uma linha de distribuição de 13,8kV e cargas que representam os consumidores residenciais. É analisada também a utilização de supressores de surto na baixa tensão dos transformadores de distribuição como forma de atenuar as sobretensões induzidas que atingem os consumidores. / Mestre em Ciências

O aterramento elétrico cumpre uma função essencial em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica, devendo atender, dentre vários requisitos, aqueles estabelecidos quanto aos valores de tensão de passo e de toque. Entretanto, em locais onde o solo apresenta valores elevados de resistividade, surgem dificuldades que nem sempre são superadas no sentido de obedecer às exigências citadas nas normas técnicas e especificações. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto em sistemas de aterramento, visando à redução dos valores de resistência de terra. Inicialmente é abordada uma configuração convencional de malha de aterramento adotada por uma concessionária de energia elétrica, sendo realizados estudos de modo a verificar a influência do espaçamento e da quantidade das hastes nos valores de resistência de terra. São também consideradas modificações nas dimensões da malha e a utilização de hastes profundas e, na seqüência, são analisados os resultados de outras configurações. De modo a verificar a efetividade do uso do concreto, foram realizadas várias simulações computacionais considerando o sistema de aterramento com a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto. Diversas situações foram investigadas, sendo possível concluir que o uso do concreto resulta em menores valores de resistência de terra em relação às malhas convencionais. Esse resultado, de certo modo, vem ao encontro das expectativas, porém deve ser ressaltada a contribuição do trabalho, a qual possibilita a análise, através de cálculos teóricos, do comportamento das malhas de aterramento com o uso do concreto. A literatura pesquisada apresenta poucos resultados teóricos, sendo encontradas algumas investigações nesse tema onde são consideradas somente medições realizadas no campo. / The electrical grounding plays an essential role in a system of electric power distribution, and must follow, among many requirements, those ones established as step voltage values and touch voltage values. However, in those places where the soil has high resistivity values, some difficulties arise and may not always be overcomed in order to follow the requirements set forth in technical standards and specifications. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the use of electrical conductors and rods encased in concrete inside grounding systems, in order to reduce the ground resistance values. Initially it was observed a conventional configuration of grounding grid that is used by an electric utility, and studies were made in order to verify the influence of the number of rods and the distance between them in the values of grounding resistance. There are also been taken into consideration the changes in the grounding grid dimensions and the use of deep rods and, right after, the results of other configurations are analyzed. In order to verify the effectiveness of the use of concrete, several computer simulations were performed considering the grounding system that used conductors and rods encased in concrete. Several situations were investigated, and it was possible to conclude that the use of concrete results in lower values of ground resistance compared to conventional grounding grid. This result, in a certain way, matches with the expectations, but it should be emphasized the contribution of the study which enables, through theoretical calculations, the analysis of the grounding grid behavior with the use of concrete. The literature shows few theoretical results and presents only some researches on this issue in which ones only measurements made in the field are considered.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / The main aim of this work is to apply the finite element method (FEM), modeled in short circuit current conduction problems at industrial frequency, calculating grounding resistance and verifying whether a particular project is within the safety specifications. The work optimization techniques for soil modeling are used and the FEM is applied as a way to aid substation commissioning, simulating the Fall of Potential method (FOP) as well as step and touch potential experimenting. The research presents the optimal model of soil found by the minimization of the error between the apparent resistivity curve extracted from electrical soil resistivity measurements. The method of Wenner and a theoretical curve of apparent resistivity for a model of "N" horizontal layers is used as well as the algorithm Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO); a fairly consolidated optimization, a metaheuristic, which recorded an excellent performance when applied to a solution of this problem. Various soil stratification were performed using optimization techniques, and the results of case studies that use graph method, extracted from literature were confronted with this method. The model of grounding problems using the FEM was presented as an alternative solution to the project using the IEEE Std 80, being possible to determine the spatial distribution of the electric potential at all points of the soil, which was modeled as heterogeneous, so getting to know the regions of the project which have the highest potential levels of step and touch. The FEM was also applied to determine the exact location of potential probe in the ground resistance measurement test which was validated through field experiments and through results extracted from literature. The method was also applied to the determination of the potential levels of step and touch existing in a substation, being the testing simulated and proven through field experiments. / Este trabalho tem como objetivo principal, aplicar o mÃtodo dos elementos finitos (FEM), modelados em problemas de conduÃÃo de corrente de curto-circuito à frequÃncia industrial, calculando a resistÃncia de aterramento e verificando se um determinado projeto està dentro das especificaÃÃes de seguranÃa. SÃo utilizadas tÃcnicas de otimizaÃÃo para a modelagem do solo e aplicado o FEM como forma de auxÃlio ao comissionamento de subestaÃÃes, simulando o mÃtodo da queda de potencial e ensaios de potenciais de passo e de toque. à apresentado o modelo Ãtimo do solo, encontrado atravÃs da minimizaÃÃo do erro entre a curva de resistividade aparente extraÃda de mediÃÃes de resistividade elÃtrica do solo atravÃs do mÃtodo de Wenner e uma curva de resistividade aparente teÃrica para um modelo de âNâ camadas horizontais. O referido modelo utiliza o algoritmo Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), uma metaheurÃstica de otimizaÃÃo bastante consolidada e que apresenta uma excelente performance quando aplicada à resoluÃÃo deste problema. Foram realizadas diversas estratificaÃÃes do solo utilizando tÃcnicas de otimizaÃÃo. Quanto ao resultado de estudos de caso foram utilizados mÃtodos grÃficos extraÃdos da literatura e confrontados com este mÃtodo. O modelo de problemas de aterramento utilizando o FEM foi apresentado como soluÃÃo alternativa ao projeto utilizando a norma IEEE Std 80, sendo possÃvel determinar a distribuiÃÃo espacial do potencial elÃtrico em todos os pontos do solo, que foi modelado como heterogÃneo, conhecendo-se assim as regiÃes do projeto que possuem os maiores nÃveis de potenciais de passo e de toque. O FEM tambÃm foi aplicado na determinaÃÃo da localizaÃÃo exata da sonda de potencial no ensaio de mediÃÃo de resistÃncia de aterramento, sendo validado atravÃs de ensaios de campo e atravÃs de resultados extraÃdos da literatura. O referido mÃtodo tambÃm foi aplicado na determinaÃÃo dos nÃveis de potencias de passo e de toque existentes em uma subestaÃÃo, sendo os ensaios simulados e comprovados atravÃs de experimentos de campo.

Οι γειώσεις διαδραματίζουν πρωτεύοντα ρόλο στην προστασία οποιασδήποτε εγκατάστασης, είτε πρόκειται για ηλεκτρικές εγκαταστάσεις ισχύος, είτε για τηλεπικοινωνίες, είτε για αντικεραυνική προστασία. Σκοπός του συστήματος γείωσης είναι η ταχεία διάχυση του κεραυνικού ρεύματος ή γενικότερα του ρεύματος σφάλματος μέσα στη γη, χωρίς να δημιουργούνται επικίνδυνες υπερτάσεις στον περιβάλλοντα χώρο, τόσο για τους ανθρώπους όσο και για τον ηλεκτρολογικό και ηλεκτρονικό εξοπλισμό. Για να είναι ένα σύστημα γείωσης αποδοτικό, θα πρέπει η αντίσταση γείωσής του να έχει πολύ χαμηλή τιμή ούτως ώστε να διασφαλίζεται η απρόσκοπτη διέλευση του ρεύματος προς τη γη. Για να επιτευχθεί μια τέτοια χαμηλή τιμή, λαμβάνοντας υπόψη ότι δεν είναι δυνατόν να επιλέγουμε πάντα το μέρος όπου θα εγκατασταθεί το σύστημα γείωσης με γνώμονα τη χαμηλή ειδική αντίστασή του, μπορούμε να προβούμε σε αύξηση των διαστάσεων του ηλεκτροδίου γείωσης (μήκος και διάμετρος), σε εγκατάσταση περισσοτέρων του ενός ηλεκτροδίων και τέλος σε προσθήκη βελτιωτικού υλικού (μη συμβατική γείωση) το οποίο μειώνει την ειδική αντίσταση του εδάφους γύρω απ’ το ηλεκτρόδιο. Η τελευταία επιλογή είναι ιδιαίτερα δημοφιλής σε εδάφη με πολύ υψηλές τιμές ειδικής αντίστασης ή και με αυξημένο κίνδυνο διάβρωσης του ηλεκτροδίου. Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας, προσομοιώθηκαν διάφορα συστήματα γείωσης, συμβατικά και μη, με διαφορετικά μήκη και αριθμούς ηλεκτροδίων, σε ομοιογενή και πολυστρωματικά εδάφη με διαφορετικές ειδικές αντιστάσεις, διαφορετικές εγχύσεις ρεύματος και με ή χωρίς χρήση βελτιωτικού, με σκοπό τη μελέτη της επίδρασης κάθε παράγοντα στην τελική διαμόρφωση της αντίστασης γείωσης και των αναπτυσσόμενων τάσεων/ηλεκτρικών πεδίων. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δόθηκε στα μη συμβατικά συστήματα και στη σύγκριση της απόδοσής τους με την απόδοση των αντίστοιχων συμβατικών. Όλες οι προσομοιώσεις πραγματοποιήθηκαν στο πρόγραμμα Opera-3d που χρησιμοποιεί τη Μέθοδο Πεπερασμένων Στοιχείων για τον υπολογισμό των ηλεκτρομαγνητικών πεδίων και ακολούθως, των λοιπών σχετικών μεγεθών. Ακολουθεί μια σύντομη περιγραφή των θεμάτων που πραγματεύεται το κάθε κεφάλαιο. Στο Κεφάλαιο 1 γίνεται εισαγωγή στην έννοια των γειώσεων, αναφέρονται τα είδη και οι μέθοδοι γείωσης καθώς επίσης και οι διάφοροι τύποι των ηλεκτροδίων γείωσης και οι διατάξεις τοποθέτησής των. Στο Κεφάλαιο 2 παρουσιάζονται ορισμένα χαρακτηριστικά μεγέθη των συστημάτων γείωσης: η αντίσταση γείωσης, που αποτελεί μέτρο της απόδοσής τους και η ειδική αντίσταση του εδάφους που τα περιβάλλει. Γίνεται αναφορά τόσο στο θεωρητικό υπολογισμό όσο και στην πειραματική τους μέτρηση. Στο Κεφάλαιο 3 γίνεται αναφορά στα βελτιωτικά υλικά γειώσεων και στα διάφορα υλικά που έχουν χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά καιρούς γι’ αυτό το σκοπό. Στο Κεφάλαιο 4 γίνεται αναφορά στις διάφορες μεθόδους υπολογισμού πεδιακών μεγεθών. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δίνεται στη Μέθοδο των Πεπερασμένων Στοιχείων μιας και αυτή χρησιμοποιήθηκε στα πλαίσια της διπλωματικής. Στο Κεφάλαιο 5 παρουσιάζεται το πρόγραμμα Opera-3d, στο οποίο πραγματοποιήθηκαν οι προσομοιώσεις, καθώς και τα ποικίλα πακέτα ανάλυσης που χρησιμοποιεί. Γίνεται επίσης αναφορά στις εξισώσεις και τον αλγόριθμο που χρησιμοποιεί για τον υπολογισμό των ηλεκτρομαγνητικών μεγεθών του εκάστοτε προβλήματος. Στο Κεφάλαιο 6 περιγράφονται αναλυτικά οι διατάξεις των συστημάτων γείωσης που προσομοιώθηκαν και τα μοντέλα πεπερασμένων στοιχείων που δημιουργήθηκαν. Παράλληλα, παρουσιάζονται τα γραφήματα και τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν σε κάθε περίπτωση. Τέλος, γίνεται αναφορά στη μετεπεξεργασία των αποτελεσμάτων, με σκοπό τον υπολογισμό της αντίστασης γείωσης, αλλά και στο θεωρητικό υπολογισμό της τελευταίας. Δίνεται μάλιστα και μία επέκταση του τύπου του Fagan [16] για την περίπτωση διστρωματικού εδάφους στο οποίο έχει γίνει προσθήκη βελτιωτικού. Στο Κεφάλαιο 7 γίνεται σχολιασμός των αποτελεσμάτων και καταγραφή διαφόρων χρήσιμων συμπερασμάτων. Τα αποτελέσματα επιδεικνύουν αφενός την τεράστια επίδραση που ασκεί το περιβάλλον έδαφος στην αντίσταση γείωσης ενός συστήματος και αφετέρου τη βελτίωση που επιτυγχάνεται απ’ το διπλασιασμό του μήκους του ηλεκτροδίου (μείωση αντίστασης γείωσης έως και 36,7%), την τοποθέτηση βελτιωτικού γύρω απ’ αυτό (μείωση έως και 68,3%) καθώς και την προσθήκη πλέον του ενός ηλεκτροδίων σε κατάλληλη μεταξύ τους απόσταση (μείωση 29,2% για δύο ηλεκτρόδια σε απόσταση τετραπλάσια του μήκους τους). Επίσης, προκύπτει ότι οι μη συμβατικές γειώσεις με βελτιωτικά προκαλούν πιο ομαλή μείωση του δυναμικού, περιορίζοντας έτσι τις αναπτυσσόμενες βηματικές τάσεις και τάσεις επαφής. Τέλος, προτείνεται ένας θεωρητικός τρόπος υπολογισμού της αντίστασης γείωσης σε περιπτώσεις μη συμβατικών συστημάτων με βελτιωτικά ειδικής αντίστασης ≤1Ωm. / Grounding systems contribute considerably to the protection of constructions (electrical power installations, telecommunications or even lightning protection). The main objective of a grounding system is to quickly dissipate fault current into the ground, without causing dangerous overvoltages in the surrounding area, both for people and electrical or electronic equipment. For a grounding system to be effective, its grounding resistance should be low enough so as to make sure that the fault current is dissipated into the earth without any hindrances. To achieve such a low value, taking into account that it is not always possible to install a grounding system in a low resistivity soil, one could increase the electrode dimensions (its length and diameter), add more electrodes and finally enhance the surrounding ground by using various ground enhancing compounds (conductive backfills – nonconventional grounding). In this way, the surrounding soil resistivity decreases and that’s why this option is commonly used in sites where resistivity is very high or where corrosion constitutes a common threat to the electrode life span. In the context of the present diploma thesis, various grounding systems were simulated, both conventional and nonconventional. The parameters that were modified were: numbers and lengths of electrodes, current injections and homogenous or multilayered soil with different resistivity values and either with or without conductive backfills. The objective was to study the effect of each of the aforementioned parameters on the grounding resistance and the potential/electric field. Special emphasis was given on nonconventional grounding systems and their effectiveness comparing to conventional ones. The simulations were conducted in Opera-3d, a program that calculates electromagnetic fields through the Finite Element Method. A brief description of the issues that are analyzed in each chapter can be found next. Chapter 1 constitutes an introduction to the meaning and role of “grounding”. The reader is then acquainted with the grounding types and methods as well as the various types of electrodes and their set-ups. Chapter 2 focuses on certain typical quantities of grounding systems: namely, the grounding resistance and the surrounding soil resistivity. Chapter 3 provides information on the various ground enhancing compounds. Chapter 4 focuses on the various methods used for the calculation of electromagnetic fields. A more detailed reference to the Finite Element Method is given. Chapter 5 provides information on the Opera-3d program, which was used for the simulations, as well as the various analysis programs that are included. Information are also provided on the equations and the algorithm used by the program in order to calculate the electromagnetic fields. Chapter 6 provides an illustration of the various grounding set-ups which were simulated as well as the corresponding finite element models that were designed. Furthermore, the simulation results and graphs are presented. Last but not least, post-processing takes place in order to calculate the grounding resistance. The latter one is also calculated using theoretical formulas. An expansion of Fagan’s formula [16] is also given in the case of two-layered soil which has been enriched by a conductive backfill. In Chapter 7 the results are discussed and several observations are made. The results demonstrate the great impact the surrounding soil has on the grounding resistance. They also show the improvement which is achieved by doubling the electrode length (decrease of grounding resistance up to 36,7%), adding conductive backfills (decrease up to 68,3%) and installing more than one electrodes at appropriate distances (29,2% decrease in the case of two electrodes at a distance four times their length). Nonconventional grounding systems with conductive backfills are found to cause a smoother potential reduction, thus minimizing the step and touch voltages. Finally, a theoretical way of calculating the grounding resistance in nonconventional grounding systems with backfill resistivity ≤1Ωm is proposed.