This research was conducted to study the use of radiation in water treatment as an alternative to chlorination which has caused health concerns due to the formation of harmful disinfection by-products. Groundwater solutions from the Biscayne aquifer were radiated with Cobalt-60 gamma radiation and studied for changes in dissolved organic carbon (DOC), UV absorbance at 254 nm (UV254), fluorescence and trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP). Molecular fractionations were conducted by ultrafiltration. Effect of the combination of radiation/peroxide was studied for DOC and UV254. Radiation showed significant removal in DOC and THMFP. Similar results were seen in the fluorescence and UV absorbance experiments. Radiation/peroxide did not improve the DOC removal. Radiation of the groundwater samples broke the larger molecular weight fractions in to smaller fractions.

The performance of a poly(ether/urea) membrane has been evaluated in a full scale reverse osmosis system. A series of experiments were conducted with six aromatic compounds - anthracene, pyrene, fluorene, 2-chlorobiphenyl, 2,4,6 trichlorophenol, and pentachlorophenol- and four volatile compounds - trichloromethane, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and trichloroethene - as single and multi-solute contaminants. The objectives of the experiments were to determine if poly(ether/urea) membranes could produce a permeate that met maximum contaminant levels (MCL) set by the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and to correlate membrane performance with physical/chemical properties of the solute contaminants. Aromatic contaminants were removed to concentrations below the current MCLs. However, volatile contaminants were not sufficiently rejected by the membrane to meet either the MCL for total trihalomethanes or trichloroethene. Sorption onto the poly(ether/urea) was found to occur for several of the aromatic compounds tested in this research. This prevented developing any relationship between membrane performance and physical/chemical properties of the solute. / Master of Science

Aerobic decomposition of hydrocarbon contaminants in anaerobic groundwater would be enhanced by oxygenating the water. This was done by injecting oxygen microbubbles in the soil matrix packed in a 7 ft by 7 ft by 5 inches in width Vertical Slice Test Cell, VSTC, and in a 30-inch column, also packed with sand. Transfer of oxygen to water was monitored after injecting oxygen microbubbles. Compared to sparged air and hydrogen peroxide injections documented in the literature to have transferred less than 2 percent oxygen to water, oxygen microbubbles transferred over 40 percent oxygen to the flowing groundwater. Also, after injection of microbubbles gas retentions over 70 percent were achieved. Oxygen Transfer Coefficients, KLa(s), were higher in layered soil in VSTC compared to non-layered soil when the same amounts of microbubbles were injected in the cell. The effect of cell layering, quality, stability, and the amount of microbubbles injections on transfer efficiency and gas holdup was studied. It was concluded that high initial gas holdups, KLa values oxygen transfer per time and percent oxygen transferred were important parameters in maintaining a sustained oxygen transfer zone. These experiments demonstrated that only one of these parameters can be at a maximum, say, a high percent oxygen transfer or a high percent initial retention or a high KLa value. However, a maximum value for one parameter is usually at the expense of the other two being low. The optimum values for these parameters would be dictated by the biochemical, sediment, and chemical oxygen demands placed on the oxygen transfer system. / Master of Science

Submitted in fulfillment for the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology: Chemical Engineering,Durban University of Technology. Durban. South Africa, 2015. / Access to safe drinking water supply is still a major problem especially in remote rural areas of developing countries. These communities rely solely on untreated surface and ground waters for survival due to the lack of financial resources to provide access to piped water. The consumption of this water in turn makes them easily susceptible to water related diseases. Hence, there is a need for an interim solution while the government is still sourcing funds for the distribution of water to these communities. Membrane filtration is a promising technology for the treatment of surface water as it does not alter the taste or smell of the end product. The main limitation for the implementation of membrane technology in rural areas is still energy demand, fouling and the skills required for membrane cleaning. Biological ultrafiltration is an emerging technology that produces water of high quality in terms of turbidity, organics and bacteria removal. The technology has been evaluated using a gravity driven dead-end mode on European waters and it offered acceptable stabilisation of fluxes for extended periods without any chemical cleaning or backwashing. This is a promising technology which can be implemented to act as an interim solution for the treatment of surface water in remote rural areas prior to consumption. This study concerns the evaluation of a biological ultrafiltration membrane system on local three South African rivers, namely, Tugela River, Umbilo River and Umgeni River. A laboratory systems comprising of a feed tank and six membrane modules connected in parallel was set up to assess the performance of a bio-UF membrane on a range of surface waters. The performance was assessed on the system’s ability to produce stable fluxes from the three rivers, the system ability to produce water with acceptable quality in terms of SANS 241:2011 for turbidity, TOC, total coliforms and E-coli. The membranes were initial cleaned and the flux rates for ultra-pure water were determined for each membrane prior to being exposed to raw water. Raw water samples were collected from three rivers with varying turbidity, total coliforms and organics. The concentrations of these contaminants were tested prior to running the raw water through the system. Thereafter, permeate was collected with time and its quality was evaluated in terms of turbidity, TOC and coliforms. The impacts of algae on flux stabilisation were evaluated by allowing the bio-UF system to run for a minimum of 3 months with and without algae growth. The system was found to be able to produce water that is compliant with the SANS 241:2011 standard in terms of turbidity, total coliforms, E-coli and TOC concentration. The system was also found to be unable to produce stable fluxes for all three rivers. The observed responses were noted to be similar to normal dead-end response, however, a slow declining flux rates was observed for Umgeni River. The presence of algae during the operation was a bio-UF membrane system was noted to further decrease the rate of flux decline. There appears to be a correlation between the raw water quality and the rate of flux decline. A further investigation was carried out aimed at assessing the relationship between the concentration of bacterial counts, TOC and turbidity. From the obtained results, it was noted that feed water with low turbidity (≤ 5 NTU), high bacterial count (≥30 000) and high total organic carbon (≥70 mg/L) is able to reduce the rate of flux decline. Hence, it can be concluded that a dead-end gravity driven Bio-UF membrane system can be used for the treatment of surface water in remote where the most main contaminants are from natural organic matter, micro-organisms and turbidity. Furthermore, it is able to produce slower declining flux rates which will increase the filter run time. It is recommended that the impacts of algae, type of bacteria and organics that enable slow decline in flux rates during the operation of Bio-UF should be investigated in order to identify means of enhancing the flux rates. Microfiltration membranes are available on the local markets hence it is also recommended that the performance of Bio-UF should be evaluated in comparison to Bio-MF.

M.Sc. (Geology) / Most rural communities in developing countries rely on borehole water as their only source of water. Since borehole water comes from underground, it is often considered pure and clean, but this is frequently not the case. Groundwater contains certain amounts of trace elements that may become deleterious to human health. The objectives of this investigation were to assess the concentration levels of Potential Harmful Trace Elements (PHTEs) and their spatial distribution patterns in borehole water in the Greater Giyani area of Limpopo, South Africa, and the potential human health risks associated with this. The method of research comprised two phases: (I) In the first phase, I assessed the occurrence and distribution patterns of PHTEs in the boreholes of the Giyani area. A total of 29 water samples were collected from boreholes (including 15 community boreholes and 14 primary school boreholes) in the Greater Giyani area during the dry season (July/August 2012), and for comparison another 27 samples (including 15 community boreholes and 12 schools boreholes) from the same localities during the wet season (March 2013). The samples were analysed for the trace elements arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), selenium (Se) and lead (Pb) using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass-Spectrometry (ICPMS) technique. In order to assess the groundwater quality, PHTEs concentrations were compared with the South African National Standard of Drinking water (SANS 241-1:2011). (II) In the second phase, I evaluated the geographic variation between PHTEs and associated human health effects. This involved acquisition of data on a total of 100 cancer cases recorded during the period 2011-2014 at Nkhensani Hospital. ArcGIS Spatial analyst tool was used to create thematic maps illustrating spatial distribution of clinical data and arsenic concentrations in boreholes.

Barometric distillation is an alternative method of producing fresh water by desalination. This proposed process evaporates saline water at low pressure and consequently low temperature; low pressure conditions are achieved by use of barometric columns and condensation is by direct contact with a supply of fresh water that will be augmented by the distillate. Low-temperature sources of heat, such as the cooling water rejected by electrical power generating facilities, can supply this system with the latent heat of evaporation. Experiments are presented that show successful distillation with a temperature difference between evaporator and condenser smaller than 10ê C. Accumulation of dissolved gases coming out of solution, a classic problem in lowpressure distillation, is indirectly measured using a gas-tension sensor. The results of these experiments are used in an analysis of the specific energy required by a production process capable of producing 15 liters per hour. With a 20ê C difference, and neglecting latent heat, this analysis yields a specific energy of 1.85 kilowatt-hour per cubic meter, consumed by water pumping and by removal of non-condensable gases. / by Eiki Martinson. / Thesis (M.S.C.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010 / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Recently, there has been growing interest in using transition metals (TM) for catalytic and electromagnetic applications, due to the ability of TMs to form stable compounds in multiple oxidation states. In this research, the focus has been on the synthesis and characterization of carbon-supported TM nanoparticles (NPs), specifically palladium (Pd) and gold (Au) NPs, for catalytic applications, and transition metal oxides (TMO) NPs, specifically Fe3O4 NPs for electromagnetic applications. Carbon supports have several advantages, such as enabling even distribution of particles, offering large specific surface area with excellent electron conductivity, and relative chemical inertness. In this dissertation, for catalytic applications, emphasis was on removal of trichloroethylene (TCE) from groundwater. For this application, carbon-supported Pd/Au NP catalysts were developed. Pd was chosen because it is more active, stable and selective for desired end-products, and Au has shown to be a good promotor of Pd's catalytic activity. Often, commercially available Pd-based catalysts are made using harsh chemicals, which can be harmful to the environment. Here, an environmentally friendly process with aspects of green chemistry was developed to produce carbon-supported Pd/Au NP catalysts. This process uses a combination of sonochemistry and solvothermal syntheses. The carefully designed carbon-supported Pd/Au NP catalyst material was systematically characterized, tested against TCE, and optimized for increased rate of removal of TCE. Electron microscopy and spectroscopy techniques were used to study the material including structure, configuration and oxidative state. The Pd/Au NPs were found mainly to form clusters with an aggregate-PdShellAuCore structure. Using state-of-the-art direct detection with electron energy loss spectroscopy, the Pd NPs were found to have an oxidative state of zero (0). The formation of the catalyst material was studied in detail by varying several synthesis parameters including type of solvent, sonication time, synthesis temperature etc. The most optimized catalyst was found remove TCE at double the rate of corresponding commercial Pd-based catalysts in a hydrogen headspace. This material was found to catalyze the removal of TCE via traditional hydrodehalogenation and shows promise for the removal of other contaminants such as trichloropropane (TCP), carbon tetrachloride (CT). This green approach to make and optimize TM materials for specific applications was extended to TMOs, specifically magnetite (Fe3O4) and further developed for the application of electromagnetism. As catalysts, Fe3O4 is used for removal of p-nitrophenol from water. However, since the carbon-supported Pd/Au material system was developed and optimized for catalysis, here, carbon-supported Fe3O4 NPs were developed for electromagnetic applications. There has been growing interest in tuning the magnetic properties of materials at room temperature with the use of external electric fields, for long-term applications in data storage and spintronic devices. While a complete reversible change of material properties has not yet been achieved, some success in partial switching has been achieved using multiferroic spinel structures such as Fe3O4. These materials experience a change in magnetic moment at room temperature when exposed to the electric fields generated by electrochemical cells such as lithium ion batteries (LIBs) and supercapacitors (SC). In the past, a 1% reversible change was observed in Fe3O4 using LIBs. Here, building on the developments from previous material system, Fe3O4 NPs were directly hybridized onto the graphene support in order to increase the observable change in magnetic moment. The material was systematically designed and tested for this application, including a study of the material formation. A simple, environmentally friendly synthesis using the solvothermal process was implemented to make the graphene-supported Fe3O4 NPs. This new material was found to produce a reversible change of up to 18% in a LIB. In order to overcome some of the difficulties of testing with a LIB, a corresponding hybrid SC was designed, built and calibrated. The graphene-supported Fe3O4 NPs were found to produce a net 2% reversibility in the SC, which has not been reported before. The results from both the LIB and SC were analyzed to better understand the mechanism of switching in a spinel ferrite such as Fe3O4, which can help optimize the material for future applications. The focus of this dissertation was on the development of a methodology for carbon-supported TM and TMO NPs for specific applications. It is envisioned that this approach and strategy will contribute towards the future optimization of similar material systems for a multitude of applications.

At Site-300, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), CA, trichloroethene (TCE) is present along with tetraalkoxysilanes such as tetrabutoxysilane (TBOS) and tetrakis(2-ethylbutoxy) silane (TKEBS), as subsurface contaminants. Intrinsic transformation of TCE to cis-dichloroethene (c-DCE) was observed in the groundwater at locations co-contaminated with TBOS or TKEBS. Attenuation of TBOS and TKEBS by abiotic hydrolysis and biological mineralization and the role played by TBOS and TKEBS in driving the TCE transformation were investigated. Under abiotic conditions, TBOS and TKEBS were found to slowly hydrolyze to 1-butanol and 2-ethylbutanol, respectively, and silicic acid. Hydrogen was produced as a result of the fermentation of the alcohols to the corresponding acids, and then subsequently to carbon dioxide. The hydrogen likely served as the electron donor for the microbially-mediated reductive dechlorination of TCE. The rates of hydrolysis of TBOS and TKEBS were determined and typical rates at pH 7, 30��C and 28 ��M initial concentration, were 0.32 and 0.048 ��/day, respectively. The TBOS hydrolysis reaction was observed to be acid and base catalyzed and independent of temperature from 15 to 30��C. All hydrolysis experiments were conducted at concentrations above the solubility limit of TBOS and TKEBS and the rate of hydrolysis increased with concentration of TBOS or TKEBS. An aerobic microbial culture from the local wastewater treatment plant that could grow and mineralize the alkoxysilanes was enriched. The enriched culture rapidly hydrolyzed TBOS and TKEBS and grew on the hydrolysis products. The microorganisms grown on TBOS cometabolized TCE and c-DCE. TCE and c-DCE degradation was inhibited by acetylene indicating the stimulation of a monooxygenase enzyme. Acetylene did not inhibit the hydrolysis of TBOS. / Graduation date: 1999

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