Due to the absence of a reliable and valid measure of criminal social identity to be used with juvenile offenders in Pakistan, the focus of the first empirical chapter was to translate the self-report Measure of Criminal Social Identity (MCSI) into Urdu with the aim of testing the construct validity, dimensionality, incremental validity, and composite reliability of the measure in a sample of juvenile delinquents incarcerated in Pakistan (N = 415). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the best fitting model was a three-factor model (cognitive centrality, in-group affect, and in-group ties). The Urdu version of MCSI was then used in the subsequent chapters to examine criminal social identity as a risk factor for delinquency and a protector factor for suicide thinking. The second empirical chapter investigated the number and nature of latent classes of juvenile delinquency and their relationship with the criminal social identity by using latent class analysis and regression analysis. Results indicated a three class solution: ‘minor delinquents’ ‘moderate delinquents’ and ‘major delinquents’. Juvenile offenders who reported having an increased number of criminal friends were more likely to belong to the ‘major delinquency class’ whilst those reporting higher in-group ties and lower in-group affect were more likely to belong to the ‘moderate delinquency’ class compared to ‘minor delinquency class’. Previous empirical research has focused only on how criminal social identity predicts and helps us to understand criminal behaviour. The aim of the third empirical chapter was to investigate criminal social identity (CS) as protective factor against suicide ideation. Therefore, a structural model was estimated to investigate the relationship between the three factors of CSI and suicide ideation, while controlling for age, offender type, period of confinement, and drug addiction. Results indicated that of the variables included in the model, the only significant (negative) predictor of suicide ideation was in-group ties. Thus, in-group ties may act as a protective factor against the development of suicide ideation in incarcerated offender.

Determining the veracity of a rape allegation in the absence of incontrovertible evidence is highly problematic and complicated by vagaries of surrounding issues. The purpose of the present study was to utilise a unique, multi-faceted approach with a representative US complete dataset (n=351) to identify the most prominent, distinguishing characteristics between genuine and false allegations. There are reasons to suggest that false allegations will be distinguishable from genuine rapes. The reasons include psychological dynamics such as a false allegers’ (not a survivor of rape) reliance on rape myths for their fictitious account. In contrast, genuine reports of rape tend to encompass more specific behavioural details. 17% of the present population were objectively determined to be fabricated. Published results have indicated genuine rapes having a higher quantity and quality of reported actions. Smallest Space Analysis (SSA) was used to identify and categorise co-occurring behaviours, finding thematic consistency in genuine rapes. In contrast, false allegations revealed an erratic structure indicative of the fabricated stories’ reliance on rape myths. Thematic structures are consistent with published findings which lends support to the grouping procedure utilised for this thesis. Additionally, a mean number of 6.6 behaviours in false allegations compared to the 9.3 behaviours controlled by the offender in genuine cases were observed. Partial Order Scalogram Analysis with base coordinates (POSAC) allows for using a combination of the most reliably distinguishing characteristics across cases. A developed model provided a unique method of exploring the qualitative and quantitative variations across cases. The eight most distinguishing behaviours were used to calculate a Behavioural Profile Score (BPS) for each incident and supported published results. As another potential means of assessing plausibility, analysis showed that genuine reports of rape contained greater detail as measured by the number of specific behaviours described. Although this thesis has various limitations, the results of three very distinctly different procedures all indicate distinguishable characteristics between genuine and false allegations. Additionally, it demonstrates the significance of myths in shaping actions and provides indications to why so many cases are indeterminate.

This thesis has two aims. First, it examines how the principles of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) are practically applied by a representative sample of 28 Architectural Liaison Officers (ALOs) across England and Wales. Second, it investigates how CPTED is delivered across Greater Manchester by Greater Manchester Police Design for Security Consultancy (DFSC). The research demonstrates that when presented with a set of residential plans ALOs are, to varying extents, able to identify locations which time shows have higher levels of crime and disorder. Whilst there is a skill exhibited by ALOs, there is a wide range of performance with some ALOs tending to overstate the risks posed. The skill therefore requires finessing to ensure that ALO input is maximally useful. It is argued that those responsible for the application of CPTED should be afforded more training and resources to allow them to develop this skill. Research underpinning ALO advice also needs to be developed. The way in which CPTED is delivered across Greater Manchester is atypical when compared to other forces across England and Wales. CPTED in Manchester is applied by former built environment professionals and a fee is charged for the production of a Crime Impact Statement (CIS). The aim of the CIS is to ensure that CPTED is considered early in the design and planning process. The thesis reports on how the CIS process was delivered during a period of austerity and examines how DFSC liaise with key stakeholders in compiling the CIS. The associated police recorded crime data for four residential CIS developments is reviewed as a means of measuring the extent to which the developments experienced crime and disorder compared to the immediate surrounding area. During the period of analysis no burglary offences were recorded. Analysis reveals that the involvement of DFSC is dependent upon a client being aware of the policy requirement for a CIS to accompany major planning applications. Some clients request a CIS late in the design and planning process, which limits the time DFSC can appraise the scheme and provide a consultative service. The content and structure of the CIS’ varies depending upon when and by whom the CIS is written. Whilst CPTED is an important consideration for LPAs across Manchester, it is only one consideration, amongst others, for planning officers.

Higher education institutes are undergoing fundamental changes and rapid development. Customers (faculty, staff, student)2 demand high quality services at reasonable and affordable costs. Customer dissatisfaction and a growing awareness of gaps between actual and ideal service have led to intensifying pressure to improve quality. Total Quality Management (TQM) is considered one of the most important methods adopted by managers in recent decades to make their organizations more sustainable, competitive and profitable. It has been admitted that TQM is not embraced by universities as much as industries and governments, particularly in developing countries. The present research is an important first exploratory empirical study of TQM implementation in Iran which assesses the extent to which the TQM approach is applied in Medical Sciences Universities (MSUs) and to propose a convenient model for effective implementation of TQM to promote the performance of the universities, increasing of customer satisfaction and to remain competitive in the region. The data were obtained from the field work at two major Iranian medical sciences universities as the representatives of MSUs through self administered questionnaires (adapted from an established Baldrige model) and also face to face semi structured interviews regarding the research objectives and research questions with a rage of stakeholders. The questionnaire aimed to investigate the implementation of TQM in MSUs, while, semi-structured interviews aimed to gain an understanding of themes which had emerged from the questionnaire as well as to validate the findings resulting from the questionnaire. Different statistical techniques (e.g. descriptive analysis, multiple regression, spearman‟s correlation, Kruskal-Wallis) were used to describe the respondents‟ characteristics and identify and explain findings of the data .The analysis of the data revealed that although the current state of the TQM practice in MSUs, in terms of seven Baldrige educational categories, is not satisfied, but it seems the universities have started improving in some areas. The results also indicated four new TQM implementation impediments: a) managers are multi jobs b) financial problems of the staff and lack of interest in participating in TQM training and programs, c) non accountability of the mangers to the ministry, and d) lack of time for TQM implementation. In addition the results showed that, there is a correlation amongst the seven categories. Also, it was found that the government (the ministry) policy acts as an encouraging factor to implement TQM successfully through the assessment of the senior leaders of the university. Moreover, the results showed that there is no difference in their levels of views on Baldrige TQM model by male and female respondents. The study has proposed a model which would be more helpful to the top managements of hifgher education institutions for providing the quality educational service to their customers as well as improvement in the delivery mechanisms. The research has identified some useful implications for Universities leadership and academic researchers. The study concludes by identifying recommendations of further research, considers the limitations of the research and discusses the researcher‟s personal learning.

Building Information Modelling is an approach that fully integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a collaborative and highly automated process, applicable to the design, construction and operation of buildings. With the United Kingdom Construction Industry (UKCI), the UK Government, as the industry’s largest client, has mandated the use of BIM on all public sector projects by 2016. By considering BIM as an innovation, a total of 104 potential dynamics of BIM adoption were identified from literature along with potential variations by company type and size. Through the application of equal status mixed methods and robust stratified random sampling of 335 respondents, to match the profile of the UKCI, the key findings of the study are: Overall 62% of respondents have adopted BIM, with adoption highest among Consultants and Main Contractors, and lowest among Sub-Contractors, with a substantial increase in adoption following the Government Mandate. Although there is scope for the increased utilisation of BIM for those who have adopted it, 10% of respondents have no plans to adopt BIM. 23 significant dynamics of BIM adoption were identified, with 15 of these inhibiting adoption and 8 supporting adoption. For large companies the government mandate and advantages of BIM as a collaboration tool were the more significant supporting dynamics, while for smaller companies the cost of BIM was the more significant inhibiting dynamic. For Main Contractors, the robustness of existing practices and for Sub-Contactors the cost and complexity of BIM, along with company survival were the most significant inhibiting dynamics. The results suggest that under Rogers’s diffusion of innovation model, while relative advantage is an important supporting characteristic of BIM, compatibility with existing practices Is an equally important but inhibiting characteristic, while observability is not relevant.

This thesis examines how social enterprise is constructed in theory and practice. A critical approach is taken to questioning assumptions about complex issues especially the dynamics of networks and those facing uncertain and ambiguous situations. Due to limited empirical evidence, a qualitative approach is adopted to explore how network interactions influence identity, meaning and actions. The research from a 16-month case study was undertaken to understand how social enterprise is made sense of by those in 37 existing social organisations, intermediate support and commissioning agencies in West Yorkshire. An analysis of data collected from in-depth interviews, together with participant observation of network events is used to theorise that issues of identity and interactions between network contacts. It attempts to make explicit some of the identity construction and maintenance processes which take place in local networks. The thesis contributes to knowledge in that it offers a ‘little’ narrative of social enterprise network interactions in context, presents an unfolding model for framing network processes and uses creative narrative approaches of stories, metaphors and visual methods, not well utilised in the field but borrowing from other fields. The value of these three contributions helps to develop an enhanced understanding of social processes involved in social enterprise actions. Because of its ethnographic and phenomenological approach, it adds to the theoretical narrative and offers rich insights into contemporary network practices. The originality of the study is an unfolding approach and an alternative research perspective with which to better understand the complexity of this diverse field of study. It uses participant drawings, metaphors and paradox to examine how practitioners viewed trust (and distrust), continuity (and discontinuity), success(and lessons learnt from failure). The unfolding nature of the study enables practitioners (and researchers) the ability to structure thinking but allows for flexibility in considering the influences of local context. By focussing upon a local context it contributes grounded data to support discourse in the social context of contemporary practice. It has attempted to foster discussion of social enterprise as a socially constructed phenomenon. This empirical work considers how everyday contemporary practices correspond to (or contrast) theories and models. It offers a pluralistic view and shifts the focus from a unitary perspective of individuals and individual organisations to enable academics, policy makers and organisational participants to consider and interpret different views of changes.

This thesis seeks to investigate the development of social enterprises in the UK. Specifically, it analyses the determinants, nature and forms of legal structures of such organisations in South Yorkshire and how these impact on their operations. In order to do so, the thesis develops a hybrid conceptual framework of analysis which is broadly informed by political economy approaches but also draws on the behavioural theory of the firm and its contractual elements. The research design of the thesis is based on a mixed method approach involving the complementary use of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Data from a postal survey of 102 self-defined social enterprises and semi-structured interviews of 18 support organisations in South Yorkshire is complemented by detailed analysis of four selected cases and some key informant interviews. The study findings are based on the critical analysis of two key legal structures, Company Limited by Guarantee (CLG) and Company Limited by Shares (CLS) that underpin the activities of social enterprises in South Yorkshire. While there has been an upsurge of academic interest in social enterprise over the past decade, little is known and understood about the determinants and types of social enterprises’ legal structures and how these influence their operations. The thesis makes significant empirical and theoretical contributions to existing knowledge on this subject and provides new insight into understanding the determinants and formulation of legal structures of social enterprise. The investigation identifies a complex taxonomy of six exogenous and endogenous factors which influence the type and nature of a social enterprise’s legal structure and its ability to achieve financial sustainability. The thesis reveals that those social enterprises with charitable, less flexible legal structures such as CLG struggle to operate as viable businesses in competitive environments compared to those with CLS legal structures. The study recommends that social enterprises adopt legal structures that allow them to maximise the extraction and delivery of value to the communities they serve.

The research presented in this thesis aims to explore the lived experience of participating in consensual bondage, discipline, dominance & submission and sadism & masochism (BDSM). Traditionally, psychologists have researched this phenomenon from an external perspective, conceptualising it as pathological. By employing a phenomenological approach, I aim to understand this multifaceted phenomenon from the inside, by listening to the voices of those who engage in BDSM. The research is separated into two stages. For the first stage of empirical work I interviewed five practitioners of consensual BDSM about their experiences. This stage was designed to be particularly broad and exploratory with the aim of understanding more about the subcultures associated with BDSM, and also to inform the second, more focused stage of research. The findings were analysed using the descriptive phenomenological approach. The subsequent stage involved interviews with nine practitioners; including four that were previously interviewed for stage one. The aim here was to elucidate the specific constituents of BDSM that held erotic significance for participants. The template approach was utilised as the method of analysis. The complexity of BDSM is illustrated by the subtle variations in the erotic scripts of participants. The co-creation of fantasy was of central importance to the experience, as were measures employed in order to maintain the fantasy and ensure its success. The notion of authenticity was fundamental to the experience, which ensured all participants were invested in the erotic scene and allowed immersion into the bubble of fantasy and the exclusion of the ‘real’ world. A sense of care, trust and partnership were vital in order to achieve the erotic atmosphere, concepts that appear contrary to the kinds of sexual activities involved. This research presents an exciting account of the lived experience of BDSM, illuminating the erotic diversities and nuances related to this phenomenon. It is also the aim that this research contributes to the increasing body of work that investigates and reports BDSM from non-pathologising perspectives.

The investigation and classification of deaths in England and Wales relies upon the application by medical practitioners of diverse reporting standards set locally by coroners and thereafter upon the effectively unconstrained decision process of those same coroners. This research, using extensive analysis of Ministry of Justice (MOJ) and Office for National Statistics (ONS) data, presents comprehensive analysis of local variation in coronial outcomes across the three decision-making stages of whether to report the death, to advance to inquest, and the choice of inquest conclusion. Substantial local variation was found in reporting rates to the coroner over time (12-87%) and in rates of advancing reports of death to an inquest (6-29%). The profiles of inquest verdicts varied widely between coroner areas with some verdicts more prone to varied levels of use. Individual coroner areas were consistent over time in their rates of reporting, advancing to inquest and use of verdicts. The gender of the deceased was a major factor with all coroner areas reporting proportionately fewer female deaths than male, and female deaths being overall half as likely as that of a male to proceed to an inquest. Once at inquest, a woman’s death was more likely to yield a verdict of natural causes than that of a man. Coroners seemed prima facie to be ‘gendered’ in their approach to verdicts; that is, they were consistently more likely to favour a particular verdict when dealing with a death, according to the gender of the deceased. Decision Board Analysis (DBA), comprising three typical coroner case scenarios, was utilised to analyse the decision-making style of incumbent coroners. The DBA allowed for an examination of the way in which available case information was managed prior to coming to a conclusion, and free text respondent comments were captured. Coroners were found to vary widely in their choices of outcomes yet they managed the available information in a similar way, reading concordant amounts of information and agreeing on the relative salience of the available information. Coroners sometimes robustly defended chosen outcomes against alternatives with dichotomous positions being taken. Variation in coronial outcome could not be explained by any variation in decision-making style. Further analysis of coroners’ local practices and their determinants seems necessary.

This research investigation is focused on place branding. The popularity of location branding has grown significantly recently. Attributes such as the possibility to inform the world about the place, differentiate it, update its outdated image, promote the place and increase its attractiveness as well as competitiveness, etc. contributed to the raising interest in this phenomenon and has increased its application in practice. As a result of this, there is a lot of literature on the subject (Haninson, 2001, 2004; Rainisto, 2003; Trueman et al., 2004; Moilanen and Rainisto, 2009, etc.). Notwithstanding, place branding is still classed as a relatively new phenomenon and thus has many areas for research and development. One of such sectors is the evaluation of branding initiatives for places; it can not only justify effectiveness of place brand but also identify areas in need of attention based on which, urban strategies can be reviewed and amended accordingly. Some places have long-lasting, widely accepted and successful brands (for example, New York or Oresund, etc.) while other places are struggling to find their base (for example, Randers, etc.). Very often the success of urban brands is open to much interpretation; in general, brands are being judged and criticised by media or public. In most cases it is not clear what influences and determines success or failure of such initiatives; this exemplifies the need for empirical research. Further, some locations refrain from using visual triggers (for example, Manchester) while other places have successful world-wide known logos. Manchester has been chosen as a case study for this research investigation because of its uniqueness and a complex of issues in one case including the chronological development of city’s branding initiatives with logos, slogans and symbols along their position and importance in Manchester’s history. This research tries to determine how brand was defined in the context of Manchester city. Initiatives to brand this city probably date back to the use of the “Bee” in the nineteenth century as a symbol of industry. Most recently, the signifier “M” along summing up device “original modern” have been introduced with Manchester being a brand. All this appear to be confusing causing misinterpretations as well as criticisms by public and media. The question on how to measure the effectiveness of such branding initiatives emerges. Investigations in the field of place branding acknowledge a lack of coherent branding model as well as a lack of guidance on evaluation of branding initiatives or how to create an evaluative model/ framework thus composing theoretical background to this study. This research tries to identify if and how the effectiveness of the branding strategies can be measured and thus supplement existing knowledge in the field of urban branding. This study presents brand evaluation framework which should help practitioners to evaluate the success of the place brand idea or it could be used as a consultation measure before developing a new brand. It is anticipated the proposed framework will contribute in designing more targeted campaigns. Literature reviews were used in this study to understand existing knowledge and findings assisted in developing a framework for the evaluation of urban brands. The proposed framework has three vertical facets (vision, attributes and perceptions) each of them comprising of a number of variables and the middle section representing the core of the framework. The degree of match between vision and perceptions demonstrates whether efforts put on place branding are consistent with its aim. In this research, the multiple sources of evidence were used in order to help to deal with the issues of validity and reliability of the case study which was utilised to examine the applicability and relevance of the evaluative framework as well as test the effectiveness of it. The proposed brand evaluation framework is comprehensive and adaptable to any place with the possibility to use greater levels of detail if needed and acting as a guide for urban brand practitioners allowing analysis of public perceptions and assessment of branding initiatives.