L’hypoxie tumorale est l’une des principales causes de l’agressivité des glioblastomes (GB). Plusieurs études attestent de l’implication de l’isoforme HIF-1α (hypoxia inducible factor-1α) dans la progression de ces tumeurs et dans leur résistance à la radiothérapie (RT). Plus récemment, il a été établi que l’isoforme HIF-2α régule la capacité tumorigénique des cellules souches de GB (CSG). Cependant, le rôle de ce facteur dans la croissance des cellules de GB différenciées et leur réponse à la RT est moins documenté. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de ce travail a été de renforcer ces connaissances à l’échelle préclinique en utilisant deux approches d’ARN interférence (ARNi) pour moduler l’expression de HIF-2 : cibler directement HIF-2α ou cibler HAF (hypoxia associated factor), un facteur impliqué dans le switch de HIF-1α vers HIF-2α. Les résultats obtenus sur un modèle orthotopique de cellules humaines de GB (U251-MG) différenciées montrent que l’invalidation de HAF conduit à un fort ralentissement de la croissance de ces tumeurs mais indépendamment de HIF-1α ou HIF-2α. L’effet de l’invalidation de HIF-2α serait, quant à lui, dépendant de l’environnement tumoral. En effet, la diminution d’expression de HIF-2α dans les cellules U251 ne modifie pas la croissance tumorale dans un modèle de greffe sous-cutanée, alors que celle-ci favorise la croissance tumorale lorsque les cellules de GB sont implantées en intracérébral. Par comparaison aux tumeurs contrôles, ces tumeurs sont plus invasives et mieux perfusées. In vitro, l’inhibition de l’expression de HIF-2α n’a aucun effet sur la survie des cellules U251 alors qu’elle diminue la mort apoptotique de ces cellules exposées aux rayons X.L’ensemble des données présentées dans cette étude suggère que HAF et HIF-2α pourraient réguler la capacité tumorigénique des cellules de GB différenciées, tout comme observé pour les CSG. En outre, ces résultats soulignent la nécessité de prendre en compte le microenvironnement cellulaire afin de mieux comprendre le comportement de la tumeur dans son environnement hypoxique. / Hypoxia is one of the main causes of glioblastoma (GB) aggressiveness. Various studies attest on the involvement of the HIF-1α isoform (hypoxia inducible factor-1α) in the progression of these tumors and in their resistance to radiation therapy (RT). More recently, it was established that the HIF-2α isoform regulates the tumorigenic capacity of GB stem cells (GSC). However, the role of this factor in the growth of differentiated GB cells and their response to RT is less documented. In this context, the goal of this work was to strengthen this knowledge at the preclinical level by using two RNA interference (RNAi) strategies to modulate the expression of HIF-2: one directly targets HIF-2α, the other one targets HAF (hypoxia associated factor), a factor involved in the switch of HIF-1α to HIF-2α. Our results obtained on an orthotopic model of differentiated human GB (U251-MG) cells showed that the invalidation of HAF leads to a strong slowdown in tumor growth but independently of HIF-1α or HIF-2α. On the other hand, the effect of HIF-2α silencing seems dependent on the tumor environment. Indeed, the extinction ofHIF-2α expression in U251 cells does not modify tumor growth in a subcutaneous model, whereas it promotes tumor growth when GB cells are intracerebrally grafted. Compared to control tumors, these tumors are more invasive and highly perfused. In vitro, the inhibition of HIF-2α expression has no effect on GB cell survival whereas decreasing the X-rays induced apoptotic death.Collectively, these data suggest that HAF and HIF-2α could regulate the tumorigenic capacity of differentiated GB cells, like it does in CSGs. In addition, these results highlight the need to take into account the cellular microenvironment to better understand the behavior of the tumor in its hypoxic environment.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the interference of substances with effect of growth regulator, applied to seeds in physiological quality of rice seed subjected to the condition of low temperature stress, seeking to identify the enzymatic mechanism of action of these products, well as their performance on the field, on different sowing dates and cropping systems. For this reason, various experiments were conducted at the experimental of field and in the laboratory using the phytohormone gibberellic acid, the insecticide thiamethoxam and an organo-mineral fertilizer, Haf Plus®. In general, the products tested increased the germination end of most rice cultivars, and their efficiency linked to the existence of low temperature, with greater emphasis on the gibberellic acid, which also influence the final germination, increases seed germination. In cold-sensitive cultivars, as Irga 424, there is no influence of the products in the physiological. The products act beneficially on the antioxidant system of plants, mainly on the activity of superoxide dismutase, reducing free radical production and lipid peroxidation. However, the difference in vigour between the samples were not sufficiently large so that manifest themselves in the field, for the establishment of the crop. As environmental conditions become less favorable, as in an early planting season or in the conventional tillage is a major contribution of the products on the agronomic performance, not reflecting, however, on yield. / O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a interferência de substâncias com efeito de regulador de crescimento, aplicados via semente, no potencial fisiológico de sementes de cultivares de arroz submetidas à condição de estresse por temperatura baixa, buscando identificar o mecanismo enzimático de atuação desses produtos, bem como seu desempenho em campo, sobre diferentes épocas de semeadura e sistemas de cultivo. Para isso, diferentes experimentos foram conduzidos em área experimental de várzea e em laboratório, utilizando o fito-hormônio ácido giberélico, o inseticida tiametoxam e um fertilizante organo-mineral, Haf Plus®. De maneira geral, os produtos testados aumentam a germinação final da maioria das cultivares de arroz, tendo sua eficiência atrelada a existência de temperatura baixa, com maior destaque para o ácido giberélico, que além de influenciar a germinação final, aumenta o vigor das sementes. Nas cultivares sensíveis ao frio, como Irga 424, não há influência dos produtos no potencial fisiológico. Os produtos atuam de forma benéfica sobre o sistema antioxidante das plantas, principalmente sobre a atividade da enzima superóxido dismutase, diminuindo a produção de radicais livres e a peroxidação lipídica. No entanto, as diferenças de vigor entre as amostras não foram suficientemente amplas para que se manifestassem em condições de campo, em relação ao estabelecimento da lavoura. À medida que as condições do ambiente tornam-se menos favoráveis, como em uma época antecipada de semeadura ou em sistema de cultivo convencional há uma contribuição maior dos produtos sobre o desempenho agronômico, não se refletindo, no entanto, sobre o rendimento.

Luteinising hormone (LH) is a crucial regulator of ovarian follicle maturation, ovulation and luteinisation. Development of healthy follicles and fertile ovulation can only occur within a specific range of circulating LH concentrations, with differing upper and lower limits depending on the stage of the oestrous cycle. The objective of the three studies in this thesis was to investigate the effects of both physiological and non-physiological circulating LH levels on equine follicular maturity by examining ovulatory and steroidogenic capacity, gene expression profiles and miRNA expression in ovulatory-size follicles at various stages of the oestrous cycle and/or in response to supplementation with LH. The aim of the first study was to investigate the hypothesis that deficient circulating LH is a primary cause for the inability of equine follicles to ovulate during the physiological anovulatory season. A LH-rich equine pituitary fraction (eLH) given twice daily to early transitional mares did not restore steroidogenic capacity of the ovulatory-size follicle or advance the onset of the natural breeding season; however, it significantly stimulated follicular growth to a level similar to that occurring during the normal oestrous cycle. The results demonstrated that a deficiency in LH is critically involved in reduced follicle growth during the anovulatory season. The second study examined the effects of elevated circulating LH levels early during follicle development on follicle maturation and ovulatory ability in cycling mares, with the hypothesis that excessive LH would disrupt ovulation and produce haemorrhagic anovulatory follicles (HAFs). Treatment with eLH or a luteolytic dose of prostaglandin F2α (to stimulate an increase in endogenous levels of LH) did not have any effects on follicle growth or ovulation, but did impair follicular production of androstenedione and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), suggesting a deleterious effect of high LH on follicle and oocyte maturation. The third study examined the expression of different follicular factors associated with follicle maturation as well as microRNAs (miRNAs) in ovulatory-size follicles naturally developing under different LH milieus (oestrus, dioestrus and spring transitional period). Progesterone and IGF1 were significantly reduced in follicles developing in a low LH environment (dioestrus and transition). All four miRNAs measured, miR-378, miR-542, miR-202 and miR-21 were found at higher levels in subordinate follicles than in preovulatory follicles during oestrus. In addition miR- 202 and miR-21 were significantly increased in transitional follicles relative to oestrous follicles. The results of this study indicate that follicles developing during both the spring transitional and dioestrous periods are developmentally immature and suggested potential important roles of miRNAs in follicle maturation in the horse. In summary, although LH is a key factor promoting follicular growth, it is by itself not sufficient to restore steroidogenic activity in transitional follicles. Elevated LH levels during follicle development do not disrupt ovulation, but induce changes in follicular fluid factors related to follicle maturation and oocyte quality. Follicles developing under different LH milieus show altered miRNA expression, suggesting an important role of miRNAs in follicle maturation.

Les carcinomes rénaux (RCC) sont subdivisés en plusieurs sous-types, définis selon des critères histologiques, phénotypiques et génétiques. Le diagnostic différentiel de ces tumeurs est primordial avec des conséquences pronostiques et thérapeutiques. Génétique et diagnostic : Nous avons étudié les données cliniques, histologiques, immunohistochimiques et génétiques d'une série de RCC papillaires (PRCC) de type 1 et 2. Une caractérisation génomique exhaustive complétée par NGS nous a permis de classer les PRCC de type 2 dans plusieurs groupes d'évolution variable. Nos résultats fournissent des informations inédites sur la pathogenèse des PRCC qui donnent des pistes pour un traitement personnalisé. Métabolisme, grade tumoral et phénotype : Dans une série de RCC à cellules claires (ccRCC), nous avons analysé les caractéristiques de ces tumeurs et l'expression des protéines impliquées dans le métabolisme et les isoformes de HIF. Cette étude nous a permis de mettre en évidence quantitativement une corrélation entre l'expression de MCT1, GLUT1 et CAXII et le grade de Fuhrman, et qualitativement une localisation périphérique de HIF2alpha et la co-localisation des protéines HIF2alpha et HAF. Stratégies théranostiques : Dans l’optique de définir les traitements les plus appropriés pour les patients atteints de RCC, nous avons fait un parallèle entre la sensibilité aux thérapies ciblées des patients (in vivo) et de cellules dérivées de la tumeur initiale (in vitro). Nous avons démontré que la réponse chez les patients et dans les cellules était équivalente et donc que des tests in vitro sont une piste pour définir des traitements personnalisés des patients atteints de ccRCC. / Renal carcinomas (RCC) are divided into several subtypes, defined by histological, genetic and phenotypic criteria. The differential diagnosis of these tumors is important with prognostic and therapeutic implications. Genetics and diagnosis: We studied the clinical, histological, immunohistochemical and genetic of papillary RCC (PRCC) type 1 and 2 cohort. An extensive genomic characterization completed by NGS has allowed us to classify type 2 PRCC in several groups of variable clinical evolution. Our results provide new information on the pathogenesis of PRCC that provide perspectives for personalized treatment. Metabolism, tumor grade and phenotype: In a series of clear cell RCC (ccRCC), we analyzed the characteristics of these tumors and the expression of proteins involved in the metabolism and isoforms of HIF. This study allowed us to demonstrate quantitative correlation between the expression of MCT1, GLUT1 and CA XII and Fuhrman grade, and qualitatively peripheral HIF2alpha localization and co-localization of proteins HIF2alpha and HAF. Theranostic strategies: In order to define the most appropriate treatment for patients with RCC, we made a parallel between sensitivity to targeted therapies of patients (in vivo), and cells derived from the original tumor (in vitro). We have demonstrated that the response in patients and in cells and was similar, thus in vitro assays are a way to define personalized treatment for ccRCC.

The objective of this thesis is to analyze the place of Syria in the Arab-Israeli conflict and in the Middle East peace process in the period between the 1948 war and 2000. In this context, the aim is to find out an answer to the question of how Syria acquired its central place in the conflict and a critical role in the peace process. Accordingly, the thesis consists of three main parts. In the first part of the study, the central place of Syria in the wars against Israel is examined. In the second part of the study, the challenges Syria faced during the 1980s and 1990s, and how these challenges affected the Syrian position in its relations with Israel are discussed. In the third part, the critical role of Syria in the bilateral negotiations between Syria and Israel is scrutinized. Finally, this thesis is concluded in with the developments occured in the Middle East in the period between 2000 and today.