This thesis examines the production and reception of discourses concerning religion in fictional broadcasting. It argues that the representation of religion in fictional broadcasting is a neglected area in the sociology of mass media and that this neglect contributes to a lack of understanding regarding the importance of religious identity. Production was investigated through interviewing broadcasters who were responsible for some of the most frequently mentioned programmes in the focus group interviews. A smaller number of broadcasters who were involved with religious broadcasting were also interviewed, with the intention of exploring the broadcasting ethos in relation to religion. Broadcasters confirmed that a secular ethos dominated but they also identified a number of constraints, which affected decisions to include or exclude religion from programmes. The elision of ethnicity with religion was also evident and much of this was related to broadcasting policy in relation to cultural diversity, which emphasised race as the most important factor. The relationship between religion and broadcasting since the start of broadcasting was examined through an analysis of letters and articles in The Radio Times and The Listener. This analysis demonstrated the increasingly secular attitudes on the part of both audiences and producers. It also provided an historical contextualisation for the contemporary part of the research. Academic arguments concerning secularization generally and its relationship to broadcasting, specifically, were examined. Although there are debates about the legitimacy of the secularization thesis, within academe, this study suggests that within broadcasting the argument has been won and religion is seen as far less relevant that race, gender or disability. The conclusion of the study is that representations of religion should be taken more seriously by academics and broadcasters because they do have an effect on attitudes that affect social inclusion and exclusion. Whilst this is problematic for Christians and Sikhs the findings of this study suggest that it is particularly problematic for Muslims.

This thesis aims to identify causal effects using a natural experimental approach. We focus on the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in midwestern Japan as a source of exogenous variation in the variables of interest. Chapter 1 explores the causal effect of schooling on juvenile delinquency using variation in schooling caused by policy interventions in specific municipalities after the earthquake. Using the instrumental variable estimator to address endogeneity problems arising from simultaneity and unobserved heterogeneity, we find that schooling reduces juvenile delinquency, although some of our estimates have large standard errors and are imprecisely estimated. The results indicate that a one-percentage-point increase in the high school participation rate reduces the number of juvenile arrests by approximately 1.1 per 1,000 youths. 1 Estimates of social benefits show that it is less expensive to reach a target level of social benefits by improving schooling than by strengthening police forces. Chapter 2 studies the causal effect of volunteer work on the mortality of the elderly. After the earthquake, levels of volunteering increased considerably in municipalities hit by the earthquake, while other municipalities did not experience such a sharp increase. This exogenous shift in levels of volunteering is exploited to address the endogeneity problem associated with estimating the effects of volunteering. Specifically, unobserved heterogeneity across municipalities that affects both morality and the level of volunteering, such as the quality of local health care services, may bias estimates on the effect of volunteering. The results indicate that volunteering has no significant effect on mortality amongst people in their 50s and 60s, while it significantly reduces mortality amongst people in their 70s and 80s or older. Evaluated at the mean, the estimate implies that the life of approximately one person aged 80 or older (out of 186 persons) is saved in a given year when the number of volunteers increases by 100 (out of 1,911 persons).

Theories of social justice propose various principles for the just regulation of social institutions and practices. However, why should individuals comply with the rules of just social institutions? To answer this question, a theory of obligation is required. This thesis examines and defends the principle of fairness as a theory of individual obligation. It begins by reviewing the debates within political philosophy over the principle since its initial formulation by H. L. A. Hart. Thereafter, the defence of the principle of fairness proceeds in three stages. First, the thesis explores the moral foundations of the principle. It is argued that the concepts of right, equality, and fairness as reciprocity work as the moral foundations provided that fairness as reciprocity has priority over right and equality. On the basis of this reciprocity-based foundation, a revised principle of fairness is stated, which specifies the conditions for the justification of an obligation to follow institutional rules. Second, the thesis rebuts main objections levelled against the principle: the consent argument, the limiting argument, and the utility argument. Finally, the principle of fairness is defended as a principle that has appealing normative implications for one of the most important challenges we face in recent times, global climate change. With theoretical elaboration, defence against main objections, and practical application, this thesis presents a comprehensive development of the principle of fairness as a plausible theory of obligation.

The thesis has a number of general aims, which range around conceptualising the Loyal Orange Institution [LOI] and laying it open for a fruitful theoretical approach. There is first in Section One, a demarcation of the object of study, drawing a rigorous line between the LOI and a much more indefinite body of militant Protestant and anti-Catholic sentiment. Following on from this, the causal regress is shifted beyond a commonsense attribution of `sectarianism', and the conspiratorial or functionalist emphases which tend to dominate the existing literature. Generally more appropriate, in analysing Orangeism's progress in 19th century Scotland, is a conception of ideology which is structural and objective. Yet care is also taken here not to erase all instances of social control in the Movement's history. These, it is suggested, can be viewed as arising from basic inequalities of power in capitalism, in turn the result of economic inequalities and control of the state apparatus. A further difficulty with the more `sophisticated' Marxist approach is also raised. For, if this is a better fit with Orangeism's political and ideological content; in its embracing of endemic fractionalisation of the proletariat, it does seem to abandon a characteristic Marxist class analysis in favour of a neo-Weberian one. It is agreed that this indicated the need for a new Marxist approach to sectionalism. The construction of such an approach, however, requires concrete historical work rather than more speculative theorising. Accordingly it is the former which is the concern of this thesis, though it does raise a number of themes which are important for further theoretical consumption. Section Two, for example, suggests the necessity of rethinking the relation between sectarianism and sectionalism in the workplace. Related to this must also be a reconsideration of the `labour aristocracy' concept, and the explanatory value of `marginal privilege' in connection with Orangeism. The Section further emphasises the need for a phenomenological dimension in any new theory of working class sectionalism, a sensitivity to self-perceptions being particularly crucial in understanding the sources of motivation for Orangeism and the internal divisions which characterised it. An important substantive problem also structures this, and Section Three dealing with Orange political practice - namely how to account for the LOI's absolute strength, yet relative weakness in Scotland. The predicates for the former, it is argued, are found in a sympathetic ideological climate, and in the impact of successive home Rule and Disestablishment crises. Above all, though, it is suggested that the real backbone of LOI support in 19th century Scotland was formed by Ulster Protestant migrants. In Orange relations with the churches and political parties, however, this `Ulster factor' could prove a double-edged sword. For while the migrants themselves were largely integrated into Scottish society, Orangeism itself was widely perceived as an extension of Irish `party' quarrels. Coupled with a reputation for violence and drunkenness, this factor interacted in turn with broader cultural and political, as well as economic, features of 19th century Scotland. Notably these included schisms in the Scottish churches, the precarious position of the Conservative party here, and the focus of political decision-making outside the country. These points indicate, finally, the importance of an awareness of the specificity of social formations in any new approach to sectionalism.

This study uses qualitative methods to explore how boys’ and girls’ symptom reporting may be influenced by their perceptions of societal gender- and age-related expectations, their conceptualisations of symptoms, and the social context of symptom experiences. Twenty-five focus groups were conducted with girls and boys aged 10, 13 and 15. These took place in one primary and one secondary school, both located in central Scotland, between June 2004 and January 2005. Focus groups were composed of pupils who were the same age and gender. To stimulate discussion and aid comparison across groups, focussing exercises were designed and put into practice. Symptom cards were used to investigate pupils’ conceptualisations of symptoms. Vignettes encouraged pupils to explore how same- and opposite-sex peers might react to a ‘physical’ and ‘malaise’ symptom in different social contexts. Histograms displaying gender differences in symptom reporting were used as a basis for exploring pupils’ explanations for these patterns. This study found that experiences of illness are integral to boys’ and girls’ presentations of themselves and their performances of gender and age. Their efforts to conform to gender- and age-related expectations have a significant influence on their reactions to illness, their conceptualisations and assessments of symptoms, and also their perceptions of the consequences of seeking help for illness in different social contexts. Societal expectations can be seen as representing strict ‘rules’ for boys, which substantially restrict their reactions to ‘physical’ and especially ‘malaise’ symptoms, whereas they can be viewed as more lenient ‘guidelines’ for girls which are more permissive of their help-seeking for either ‘physical’ or ‘malaise’ symptoms. The ‘rules’ and ‘guidelines’ for boys and girls are not as polarised as gender stereotypes would lead us to expect. This study suggests that seeking help for illness can pose a serious threat to boys’ constructions of themselves as ‘successfully masculine’, but is also has a negative impact upon girls’ presentations of themselves as strong and independent. Boys and girls also argued that the transition from childhood to adolescence is more stressful for girls. They portrayed the advert of puberty and menarche, as well as mounting academic pressures, as stressors likely to lead to girls’ increasing experiences of ‘physical’ symptoms and ‘psychological’ distress. In order to reduce help-seeking barriers and improve boys’ and girls’ perceptions of the consequences of reporting symptoms, there needs to be an erosion of the idea that illness signifies weakness or deficiencies of character. Campaigns to reduce the stigma of mental illness would benefit from incorporating boys’ and girls’ conceptualisations of ‘malaise’ symptoms and aiming to change misconceptions which act as barriers to help-seeking.

The sociological issue addressed in this thesis is the assessment of recent work carried out in relation to questions of architectural and urban transitions. Glasgow’s City of Architecture and Design festival is used as a test case to illustrate and apply the emerging concerns with the role of architecture and design culture in managing and driving urban change. It confirms the current applicability of some distinct theoretical positions drawn from studies of a range of cities. It suggests sociologists ought to be paying more attention to Glasgow as it exemplifies some main tendencies identifying it as a vanguard culture city developing a three dimensional culture of urban space. Writing with a theoretical and empirical focus on the experience of the ‘city of culture’, the thesis works through principal themes to clarify the range of factors driving change in the city of Glasgow. I compare the city’s international exhibitions and modern architectural character to illustrate how centralised and flamboyant observations at festival sites, and a study of some exemplary productions of the festival in relation to the ongoing transformations of urban experience in the central city. The thesis provides a sustained sociological portrait of the city’s architectural and design culture and points to specific questions concerned with the nature of the recolonisation of the valorised central city.

This thesis provides an ethnographic analysis of how Greek gay men experience the ways in which their sexuality is subject to ‘negotiation’ in the family and the military, how these ‘negotiations’ influence and sometimes even inhibit the creation of an LGBT movement. The experiences of my ethnographic informants produced little material for generalisations but the diversity of their voices suggests that they are constantly fighting between the desire to belong and the wish to remain different. I argue that the theoretical framework of timi and dropi (honour and shame) can still be a valuable explanatory tool for an understanding of Modern Greek homosexualities. Yet, this thesis offers a critique of this paradigm for its neglect to account for the possible ways in which the sexual contact of the men in a family may occasionally be seen as a threat to the family’s honour. As a result, silence becomes a defence mechanism that many of my gay interlocutors and their families employ to deal with homosexuality. This varied silence often inhibits the sense of pride in the man’s homosexuality and in turn prevents him from joining the movement that would require him to be vocal about his sexual self. The military experiences of my interlocutors, on the other hand, challenge the assumption that the military is a strictly heterosexual space. What they often describe as the ‘homo-social’ environment of the military acted as a catalyst for several of them to come to terms with their homosexuality. The thesis also explores the history of Greek LGBT activism from its inception in 1976 to today and examines the reasons behind its limited success in capturing the hearts and minds of my interlocutors.

In the autumn of 1997 it was announced that Radio 4's programmes were to be rescheduled and a commitment was given that disability would become a mainstream issue for the network. The new schedule and the mainstreaming initiative were implemented in April 1998. One of the immediate effects of rescheduling was the disappearance of Does He Take Sugar?, the network's weekly programme which presented in-depth treatment of general disability issues. By way of replacement, You and Yours, Radio 4's consumerist programme of longstanding, was given the remit to include regular coverage of disability issues in its content. It was intended that the outcome of these decisions would be that regular coverage of disability would emerge from a niche slot within the network and be positioned within the mainstream of the network's output. On the one hand, the implementation of the proposal to mainstream disability yielded the possibility of an increase in the coverage of disability issues on Radio 4 in an integrated way. On the other hand it could mean a loss of effective and focused treatment of disability issues and a qualitative shift in the nature of coverage. The proposal to mainstream disability issues on Radio 4 thus touched on central issues concerning the treatment of socially disadvantaged groups and the quest for equality. Its implementation took place at a time when the UK disability movement was growing in political power, and disabled people in Britain were becoming aware of the promise of potentially beneficial socio-cultural changes reflected by developments such as the introduction of the Disability Discrimination Act CDDA 1995). This thesis examines three aspects of the introduction of the mainstreaming initiative and the early years of its implementation: a) it draws on interviews with key players, conversations with others involved, participant observation reports and documentary evidence to examine the rationale behind the mainstream initiative and, in the light of the decision to drop the network's programme which focussed on general disability issues (Does He Take Sugar?), it examines the decision to retain In Touch, the network's niche programme for blind or visually impaired listeners; b) it presents a quantitative and qualitative comparative analysis of the network's pre and post-mainstreaming treatment of disability issues. This includes analysis of ten editions of Does He Take Sugar? the disability issues covered in You and Yours during the months of September 1998, 1999, 2000 and analysis of the series No Triumph, No Tragedy. presented by a former member of the Does He Take Sugar? team in the summer of 2000.

Many HIV/AIDS prevention interventions have been shown to increase awareness and knowledge but few have been shown to impact on behaviour. This ethnographic study was designed to provide a holistic account of risk perception in order to inform our understandings of how HIV risk is perceived. Through qualitative methods it is both a deductive testing of the risk theories of Douglas and Giddens and an inductive, grounded investigation to identify which risks are prioritised and the discourses which influence risk perceptions in one rural and one neighbouring peri-urban site in north-western Tanzania. Risk perception is framed by multiple, sometimes contradictory, discourses which shape individual perceptions of risk at particular moments. These are defined as a series of ‘risk moments’, each of which is context specific and contingent on dynamic social conditions. Living in a society in flux, where multiple forms of tradition co-exist with modern ideals, rural dwellers’ experiences of past misfortune are often interpreted to inform a future-oriented risk perception. The role of chance and fatalism are dominant public and private discourses, but ones which co-exist with collective and individual capabilities to control risk through reliance on social capital and social networks to create maendeleo(development), despite restricted lifestyle alternatives and vulnerable socio-economic conditions. Responses to some risks are invariable and predictable, such as routinised actions like hand washing. Responses to other risks, such as crop failure, vary according to predictable patterns. These patterns include social position and biography, defined through gender, socio-economic status, partner type and exposure to alternative lifestyle choices through migration. This is one of several ways in which risk perceptions are dominated by social factors. Others are the presumed social causes of many risks, and the social benefits or costs of risk aversion. Conflicting social risks, such as exposure to jealousy and being too trusting, are subject to cautious strategies to manage ambiguous social relations. Within this dynamic social world, characterised by contradictions between adaptation and resignation, risk priorities are constantly re-assessed and management strategies renegotiated as individuals encounter novel circumstances. The results from this research have confirmed this contingent nature of risk perception and contributed to our knowledge of people’s approaches towards health risks and understandings of prevention which may be useful in the design of appropriate behaviour change campaigns.

This thesis explores the recent phenomenon of premarital stag party tours made to Eastern European cities by groups of British men. It is based on ethnographic field research in Krakow, Poland, conducted over the course of one year. The use of qualitative methods, primarily participant-observation, allows for the exploration of the in situ meanings and social interactions which define the stag weekend. The thesis argues that the behaviour of stag tour groups offers considerable insight into masculinity and that the meanings attributed to such behaviour reveal complex construction of contemporary British masculinities. It is argued that the Eastern European stag tour is both sold and consumed on the premise that it represents a distinct physical, social and symbolic space and time within which masculine behaviour can be enacted. This is seen as a liminal space within which an exaggerated hyper-masculinity based on a carnivalesque social transgression becomes possible and desired. It is argued that the stag tour is both performative and embodied. The male body plays a central role through the consumption of alcohol, its effects upon the body and the use of bodies by stag tourists to foster an ethos of playfulness and enact a transgressive release from social restraint. Intimacy, sociability and group cohesion play a significant role in shaping the meaning of the stag weekend for tour participants. The thesis concludes that the stag tour represents a meaningful and symbolic moment for its participants, which is mediated by notions of masculinity and homosociality. While the stag tour represents a manifestation of hegemonic masculinity in a narrow sense, it also highlights the adaptability, rather than „crisis‟, of masculinity for the men involved.