Background: The burden of cardiometabolic disease (CMD) is rising in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, there are limited population-based prevalence estimates of CMD risk factors to inform public health initiatives for the prevention and management of CMDs in these populations. This thesis aims to contribute to this evidence gap by assessing the prevalence and distribution of established and emerging CMD risk factors, associations between risk factors, and tools for their identification, in a South African population. Methods: The Durban Diabetes Study (DDS), a population-based cross-sectional survey of CMD risk factors, was designed and data were collected on 1204 participants from the eThekwini Municipality, South Africa. Key findings: In this urban South African population, the prevalence of most CMD risk factors was high, and varied across demographic and socioeconomic groups. The prevalence of smoking and alcohol consumption was higher in men, whilst the prevalence of obesity, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, and hyperglycaemia was higher in women. Wealth was associated with obesity and hypercholesterolemia, whilst education level and employment status were associated with smoking, physical activity and diabetes. Despite several potential advantages, the use of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) for diagnosis of diabetes is not established in SSA. Using plasma glucose measures as the reference, HbA1c ≥6.5% detected diabetes with high sensitivity and specificity. Furthermore, the association of anaemia, HIV, and antiretroviral therapy (ART) with HbA1c was modest and no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of diabetes were found in those with anaemia or HIV based on plasma glucose and HbA1c measurements. This is the first evidence for the utility of HbA1c for the diagnosis of diabetes in a black SSA population. There is emerging evidence for the association of HIV and ART with CMD risk factors. In the DDS, the prevalence of HIV was high (43.5%) and untreated HIV was associated with low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, whilst ART-treated HIV was associated with high triglycerides. Finally, 30.8% of participants were at high risk of CMD based on metabolic syndrome, but only 7.9% had high 10-year cardiovascular disease risk based on the Framingham risk score. Conclusion: This thesis has added to the evidence base on CMD risk factors in South Africa. These findings highlight the need for longitudinal studies to investigate the aetiology of CMDs and robustly assess the utility of tools to identify risk of CMD in SSA populations.

Objetivos: Este Estudo randomizado duplo cego placebo controlado comparou, clínica, sitemica e imunologicamente um protocolo de Terapia fotodinâmica antimicrobiana (TFA) de aplicações múltiplas com um protocolo já consagrada com o uso da Doxiciclina sistêmica no tratamento da doença periodontal em pacientes diabéticos tipo 2 descontrolados. Materiais e Métodos: Vinte seis pacientes com HbA1c> 7% foram selecionados e randomicamente alocados em dois grupos que receberam raspagem e alisamento radicular. Um dos grupos recebeu a aplicação adjunta de aplicações múltiplas de TFA (n=12) e o outro utilizando a doxiciclina sistêmica na dose de 100mg (n=14). Os parâmetros monitorados foram índice de placa, Sangramento à sondagem, Profundidade de sondagem, Supuração, Recessão gingival e nível clinico de inserção relativo, o parâmetro sistêmico avaliado foi a HbA1c, medida antes e 3 meses pós tratamento. Os níveis de IL1-β, TNF-α e TGF-β foram medidos antes, 1 e 3 meses pós tratamento através da coleta de fluido crevicular gengival. Resultados: Não houveram diferenças significantes em nenhum dos parâmetros clínicos avaliados e nos níveis de HbA1c. O uso do antibiótico sistêmico demonstrou ser superior na redução de IL1-β até o período de 1 mês pós tratamento, porém, em 3 meses a TFA se mostrou superior. Não houve diferença na redução dos níveis de TNF-α e TGF-β entre os grupos. Conclusões: Ambos tratamentos foram eficientes nas melhoras dos parâmetros clínicos e sistêmicos. A TFA parece possuir maior estabilidade na redução dos níveis de citocinas inflamatórias. / Aim: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical study compared a multiple application Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT) treatment protocol with systemic doxycycline as adjuvant to scaling and root planning, to treat chronic periodontitis on type 2 diabetic patients on clinical, systemic and immune-inflammatory outcomes. Materials and Methods: Twenty six patients with Hba1c >7% were randomically allocated in two groups, SRP+Doxy (n=14) using systemic doxycycline 100 mg and SRP+aPDT (n=12) with multiple applications (0, 3, 7 and 14 days). Monitored parameters of plaque score (PS), bleeding on probe (BOP), probing depth (PD), suppuration (S), gingival recession, and relative clinical attachment level (RCAL), glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) were measured at baseline and 3 months after therapy, the cytokine profile was assessed at 0, 1 and 3 month to measure IL1-β, TNF-α and TGF-β on Gingival Crevicular Fluid. Results: There were no statistically significant differences on intergroup on clinical parameters and HbA1c levels. Systemic doxycycline shoed difference in reduction of IL1-β at 1 month, but aPDT better results at 3 months IL1-β levels. There were no differences between TNF-α and TGF-β trough experimental times Conclusions: Both treatments were effective to improve clinical and systemic outcomes and aPDT seems to have a great stability on of IL1-β reductions. (Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01175720).

Objetivos: Este Estudo randomizado duplo cego placebo controlado comparou, clínica, sitemica e imunologicamente um protocolo de Terapia fotodinâmica antimicrobiana (TFA) de aplicações múltiplas com um protocolo já consagrada com o uso da Doxiciclina sistêmica no tratamento da doença periodontal em pacientes diabéticos tipo 2 descontrolados. Materiais e Métodos: Vinte seis pacientes com HbA1c> 7% foram selecionados e randomicamente alocados em dois grupos que receberam raspagem e alisamento radicular. Um dos grupos recebeu a aplicação adjunta de aplicações múltiplas de TFA (n=12) e o outro utilizando a doxiciclina sistêmica na dose de 100mg (n=14). Os parâmetros monitorados foram índice de placa, Sangramento à sondagem, Profundidade de sondagem, Supuração, Recessão gingival e nível clinico de inserção relativo, o parâmetro sistêmico avaliado foi a HbA1c, medida antes e 3 meses pós tratamento. Os níveis de IL1-β, TNF-α e TGF-β foram medidos antes, 1 e 3 meses pós tratamento através da coleta de fluido crevicular gengival. Resultados: Não houveram diferenças significantes em nenhum dos parâmetros clínicos avaliados e nos níveis de HbA1c. O uso do antibiótico sistêmico demonstrou ser superior na redução de IL1-β até o período de 1 mês pós tratamento, porém, em 3 meses a TFA se mostrou superior. Não houve diferença na redução dos níveis de TNF-α e TGF-β entre os grupos. Conclusões: Ambos tratamentos foram eficientes nas melhoras dos parâmetros clínicos e sistêmicos. A TFA parece possuir maior estabilidade na redução dos níveis de citocinas inflamatórias. / Aim: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical study compared a multiple application Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT) treatment protocol with systemic doxycycline as adjuvant to scaling and root planning, to treat chronic periodontitis on type 2 diabetic patients on clinical, systemic and immune-inflammatory outcomes. Materials and Methods: Twenty six patients with Hba1c >7% were randomically allocated in two groups, SRP+Doxy (n=14) using systemic doxycycline 100 mg and SRP+aPDT (n=12) with multiple applications (0, 3, 7 and 14 days). Monitored parameters of plaque score (PS), bleeding on probe (BOP), probing depth (PD), suppuration (S), gingival recession, and relative clinical attachment level (RCAL), glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) were measured at baseline and 3 months after therapy, the cytokine profile was assessed at 0, 1 and 3 month to measure IL1-β, TNF-α and TGF-β on Gingival Crevicular Fluid. Results: There were no statistically significant differences on intergroup on clinical parameters and HbA1c levels. Systemic doxycycline shoed difference in reduction of IL1-β at 1 month, but aPDT better results at 3 months IL1-β levels. There were no differences between TNF-α and TGF-β trough experimental times Conclusions: Both treatments were effective to improve clinical and systemic outcomes and aPDT seems to have a great stability on of IL1-β reductions. (Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01175720).

INTRODUCTION/OBJECTIVES: Current screening guidelines for pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus note that there are discrepancies in diagnosing the disease using the fasting plasma glucose test, oral glucose tolerance test, and HbA1c in high-risk populations. The objective of this study is to compare the effectiveness of screening methods for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and pre-diabetes by race/ethnicity and gender. METHODS: Secondary analyses of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES, 2005-2008) were performed using SPSS 19.0. Screening outcomes were assessed and compared for a sample of n=10,566, NHW, NHB, MA, and Multiracial/other men and women. Analyses included cross tabulations, ANOVA and partial correlations to establish disease prevalence, effectiveness of screenings, and statistical significance. RESULTS: It was found that the HbA1c test is comparable in precision, and is correlated with the FPG for racial and ethnic minorities. The specificities for detecting pre-diabetes using the HbA1c were higher (64-66%) for these groups than by using the standard, FPG screening method (42-49%). There were no strong, significant differences for screening effectiveness for men versus women. DISCUSSION: This study revealed that the HbA1c test might be an effective method for screening for pre-diabetes in racial and ethnic minorities instead of the FPG test alone. Screening in high-risk populations will help delay the onset of T2DM, with increased prevention during the pre-clinical phase.

No description available.

Background: The number of adults affected by diabetes mellitus in developing countries, such as South Africa, is projected to grow by 170%, from 84 to 228 million people between 1995 and 2025 .This high and increasing prevalence of diabetes worldwide, and the economic burden of diabetes on developing countries like South Africa emphasizes the importance of ensuring good glycemic control so as to slow down the rate of disease progression and prevent complications. The district health care facilities are the foundation of the health care system of South Africa. The current practice is that diabetics have a point of care random blood glucose (RBG) done on the morning of their clinic appointment and this is used as a form of assessment of glycemic control during the consultation. For further clinical decision making a HbA1c is done once a year as a benchmark of glycemic control. The practical clinical question that arises is whether the assumptions underlying local clinical decision making using the RBG are valid and to what extent RBG can be used to guide clinical management. Aim and Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the strength of the correlation between RBG and HbA1c and to make recommendations for the interpretation of RBG results in adult patients with Type 2 Diabetes taken at Karl Bremer District Hospital out-patient department. The objectives were: To determine glycaemic control in the study population and compare differences between age, sex and racial groups , and determine the RBG cut-off with the best sensitivity and specificity for predicting poor glycaemic control (HbA1c>7.0% ) as well as the predictive value, likelihood ratio and pre/post-test odds and probability at this cut off. Methods: A retrospective analysis of existing hospital data and the HbA1c tests requested from the NHLS by Karl Bremer Hospital over the 2011 year period. The data was analysed by means of a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis to determine the value of RBG with the best combination of sensitivity and specificity to predict poor control of diabetes. A p-value of < 0.05 was assumed to represent statistical significance and 95% confidence intervals were used to describe the estimation of unknown parameters. HbA1c level of < = 7% was taken as representing good control and > 7% poor control. Results: Data was obtained on 349 diabetic patients of whom 203 (58.2%) were female and 146 (41.8%) male. This study population had a mean age of 54.7 years, mean RBG of 13.0mmol/l and mean HBA1c of 9.4%. The total number of black patients was 79 (23%), coloured patients 147 (42%) and white patients 122 (35) % and their mean RBG were 15.4 mmol/l, 12.8 mmol/l and 11.9 mol/l respectively. There was a statistically significant correlation between increasing RBG and increasing HbA1c (p< 0.01). The best value obtained on the ROC curve was an RBG of 9.8 mmol/l, which had a sensitivity of 77% and a specificity of 75%, positive predictive value of 0.88, positive likelihood ratio 3.08 and post-test probability of 88.2% for predicting an HbA1c above 7%. Conclusion: It was concluded that a moderate correlation exists between RBG and HbA1c in this population of diabetic patients. .The best RBG for determining poor control, defined as a HbA1c>7.0%, was found to be 9.8mmol/l and this RBG had a sensitivity of 77% , specificity of 75% and positive predictive value of 88%. Significant differences were found in pre- and post -test probability for different racial groups. Point of care testing using this level of RBG for clinical decision making will inappropriately categorise 23% of patients in this population and therefore introducing point of care testing for HbA1c is recommended.

Background Osteoarthritis (OA) is a long-term chronic disease that affects the joints and creates stiffness, pain and impaired movement. Knee osteoarthritis is the most common form of OA and affects all tissues of the joint, including bone, muscles, synovia, and cartilage. Previously, OA was accepted as only an age- or mechanical stress-related degenerative joint disease, but more recent studies suggest that OA is a heterogenous disease including inflammatory, hormonal and metabolic factors such as abdominal obesity (visceral fat), lipids (cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglycerides) and glucose.    Aim The aim was to investigate the association of metabolic factors including fasting blood glucose, HbA1c, triglycerides, cholesterol, LDL, HDL, visceral fat, CRP and radiographic KOA in patients with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis. Methods Data were acquired from 91patients in the ages 30 – 63 experiencing symptomatic knee osteoarthritis. All subjects where divided into two groups depending on their level of fasting glucose, high versus low. Group I (n=26) had high glucose levels ≥5,6 mg/L and group II (n=65) had low glucose levels &lt;5,6 mg/L.  Levels of HbA1c, lipids, visceral fat, CRP and radiographic KOA were then compared between the groups. Levels of fasting glucose, HbA1c and lipids (triglycerides, cholesterol, LDL, HDL) were analyzed by an accredited laboratory at the hospital of Halmstad by the department for labmedicine. CRP levels &lt; 1 mg/L were manually analyzed with the sandwich ELISA method (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), which measures high-sensitive CRP (hsCRP) in serum. Visceral fat area was measured through bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) with InBody 770 and radiographs of the knees to obtain information about OA. Results There was a significant difference between the two groups in HbA1c, triglycerides, cholesterol and LDL p&lt;0,05. Group I with high fasting glucose levels showed higher significant values of HbA1c, triglycerides, cholesterol and LDL than group II with low fasting glucose levels. 23% of all subjects met the requirement for metabolic syndrome according to IDF. Conclusion The findings in this study is in line with previous research and suggest that high glucose levels are associated with elevation of other metabolic factors in patients with knee osteoarthritis. However, there are several other interacting factors beyond the scope of this study, which may explain causalities. According to the findings in this study and previous research, obesity and metabolic syndrome could explain some of the connections between metabolic factors and knee osteoarthritis. Thus, further research is necessary to understand how all these metabolic factors are associated with osteoarthritis and obtain deeper knowledge about the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of the disease. / Detection and prediction of disease course in symptomatic knee osteoarthritis

Background: The One Drop vertical bar Mobile app supports manual and passive (via HealthKit and One Drop's glucose meter) tracking of self-care and glycated hemoglobin A(1c) (HbA(1c)). Objective: We assessed the HbA(1c) change of a sample of people with type 1 diabetes (T1D) or type 2 diabetes (T2D) using the One Drop vertical bar Mobile app on iPhone and Apple Watch, and tested relationships between self-care tracking with the app and HbA(1c) change. Methods: In June 2017, we identified people with diabetes using the One Drop vertical bar Mobile app on iPhone and Apple Watch who entered two HbA(1c) measurements in the app 60 to 365 days apart. We assessed the relationship between using the app and HbA(1c) change. Results: Users had T1D (n=65) or T2D (n=191), were 22.7% (58/219) female, with diabetes for a mean 8.34 (SD 8.79) years, and tracked a mean 2176.35 (SD 3430.23) self-care activities between HbA(1c) entries. There was a significant 1.36% or 14.9 mmol/mol HbA(1c) reduction (F=62.60, P<.001) from the first (8.72%, 71.8 mmol/mol) to second HbA(1c) (7.36%, 56.9 mmol/mol) measurement. Tracking carbohydrates was independently associated with greater HbA(1c) improvement (all P<.01). Conclusions: Using One Drop vertical bar Mobile on iPhone and Apple Watch may favorably impact glycemic control.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the leading causes of death from worldwide non-communicable diseases. The prevalence of diabetes in the Mexico (MX)-United States border states exceeds the national rate in both countries. The economic burden of diabetes, due to decreased productivity, disability, and medical costs, is staggering and increases significantly when T2DM-related complications occur. The purpose of this study was to use a modified behavioral risk factor surveillance system (BRFSS) to describe the T2DM self-management behaviors, diabetes care, and health perception of a convenience sample of adults with T2DM in Monterrey, MX. This cross-sectional study design, with convenience sampling, was conducted with a convenience sample (n = 351) of adults in the metropolitan area of Monterrey, MX who self-reported a diagnosis of T2DM. Potential participants were recruited from local supermarkets. Twenty-six diabetes and health-related items were selected from the BRFSS and administered in face-to-face interviews by trained data collectors. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics. The mean age was 47 years, and the mean length of time with T2DM was 12 years. The majority was taking oral medication and 34% required insulin. Daily self-monitoring of feet was performed by 56% of the participants; however, only 8.8% engaged in blood glucose self-monitoring. The mean number of health-care provider visits was 9.09 per year, and glycated hemoglobin level (HbA1c) was assessed 2.6 times per year. Finally, only 40.5% of the participants recalled having a dilated eye exam. We conclude the modified BRFSS survey administered in a face-to-face interview format is an appropriate tool for assessing engagement in T2DM self-management behaviors, diabetes care, and health perception. Extension of the use of this survey in a more rigorous design with a larger scale survey is encouraged.

Objectives: The EZSCAN is a non-invasive device that, by evaluating sweat gland function, may detect subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aim of the study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis including studies assessing the performance of the EZSCAN for detecting cases of undiagnosed T2DM. Methodology/Principal findings: We searched for observational studies including diagnostic accuracy and performance results assessing EZSCAN for detecting cases of undiagnosed T2DM. OVID (Medline, Embase, Global Health), CINAHL and SCOPUS databases, plus secondary resources, were searched until March 29, 2017. The following keywords were utilized for the systematic searching: type 2 diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia, EZSCAN, SUDOSCAN, and sudomotor function. Two investigators extracted the information for meta-analysis and assessed the quality of the data using the Revised Version of the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2) checklist. Pooled estimates were obtained by fitting the logistic-normal random-effects model without covariates but random intercepts and using the Freeman-Tukey Arcsine Transformation to stabilize variances. Heterogeneity was also assessed using the I2 measure. Four studies (n = 7,720) were included, three of them used oral glucose tolerance test as the gold standard. Using Hierarchical Summary Receiver Operating Characteristic model, summary sensitivity was 72.0% (95%CI: 60.0%– 83.0%), whereas specificity was 56.0% (95%CI: 38.0%– 74.0%). Studies were very heterogeneous (I2 for sensitivity: 79.2% and for specificity: 99.1%) regarding the inclusion criteria and bias was present mainly due to participants selection. Conclusions: The sensitivity of EZSCAN for detecting cases of undiagnosed T2DM seems to be acceptable, but evidence of high heterogeneity and participant selection bias was detected in most of the studies included. More studies are needed to evaluate the performance of the EZSCAN for undiagnosed T2DM screening, especially at the population level.