Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Weiqun Wang / Body weight control via increasing exercise and/or decreasing calorie intake has been linked to a reduced cancer risk in animal models. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clear. This study assessed the impact of exercise with or without limited dietary calorie intake on the overview profiling of phospholipids and gene expression in the skin tissues of weight controlled-mice. Mice were randomly assigned to three groups: ad libitum-fed sedentary control, ad libitum-fed treadmill exercise at 13.4 m/min for 60 min/d, 5 d/wk (Ex+AL), and exercise but pair-fed with the sedentary control (Ex+PF). After 10 wks, Ex+PF but not Ex+AL mice demonstrated a significant decrease in both body weight and percentage of body fat when compared to the sedentary controls. Among 338 phospholipids measured in the skin samples by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, most classes of phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidylcholine-containing lipids with ether linkage (ePC), and some lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC) significantly decreased in Ex+PF mice when compared to the controls. Furthermore, some species of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) containing omega-3 18:0-22:6 fatty acyl combinations increased significantly in Ex+PF mice. A total of 25 significantly-changed phospholipids were distinguishable between diet and exercise treatments by discriminant analysis. The reduced PI in Ex+PF mice was observed concomitantly with a significant reduction of PI3K protein expression. Among the 45,101 probe sets tested in skin tissues, expression of 839 genes was significantly changed by exercise with or without limited dietary calorie intake. The genes with impacted expression were involved in oxidative stress, inflammatory response, lipolysis, protein synthesis, and signaling pathway. Up-regulated expression of genes involved in elongation of long chain fatty acids in Ex+PF but not Ex+AL mice appears to partially account for increased level of 18:0-22:5PC/PE and 18:0-22:6 PC/PE. Taken together, these data indicate that controlling body weight via exercise with limited dietary calorie intake rather than exercise alone significantly modified phospholipid and gene expression profiles. The altered profiles may be associated with cancer preventive mechanisms; in particular, reduced PI and PI-related PI3K expression and altered expression of genes involved in protein kinase activity and lipid metabolism may prevent cancer.

Master of Science / Department of Human Nutrition / Mark D. Haub / BACKGROUND: Dietary supplements are increasing in popularity; individuals are looking beyond traditional methods of calorie restriction and exercise to improve health. Calcium is a critical nutrient for bone metabolism that has also been shown to enhance weight loss effects secondary to diet. PURPOSE: To determine whether eight months of calcium supplementation, in a liquid, shelf-stable form, increases bone mineral density or decreases body weight and/or body fat in free-living young adult women. METHODS: Volunteer subjects (n=42) were randomly assigned to a supplement group receiving 1,125 mg Ca2+/day (CA-BEV) or to a free-living control group (CON), which did not receive the supplement. At baseline and after the 8-month intervention (POST), dietary intake was assessed using 3-day diet records. Total body composition (body fat percentage, %FatTB; abdominal percentage fat, %FatAb; fat mass, FM; non-bone fat-free mass, FFM) and bone mineral density (lumbar spine and femoral neck; BMD) were measured via dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Subjects also completed a sub-maximal treadmill exercise test to estimate respiratory fitness at baseline and POST. RESULTS: At POST, the CA-BEV group's calcium intake (1,868[plus or minus]941 mg/d) was significantly greater than (p<0.05) the CON group (867[plus or minus]405 mg/d) and the calcium:protein ratio of the CA-BEV group (29.5[plus or minus]17.1 mg/g) was greater than (p<0.05) the CON group (12.9 ±6.2 mg/g). Those differences in calcium did not lead to predicted differences (p<0.05) between groups for BMD, body weight, %FatTB, %FatAB, FM or FFM. CONCLUSION: Our findings do not support the hypothesis that increasing calcium intake increases BMD or decreases body weight or body fat in healthy young women over an 8-month period despite a nearly two-fold increase in calcium intake.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Weiqun Wang / Weight control via dietary caloric restriction and/or exercise has been demonstrated for cancer prevention. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clear. Previous studies in our lab showed that IGF-1 and IGF-1-dependent signaling were reduced by weight control. To confirm the requirement of IGF-1 reduction for cancer prevention, we restored IGF-1 in the exercised mice, which partially reversed the reduction of TPA-induced PI3K expression and PI3K-related 38:4 PI substrate. To explore the overall mechanistic impact, we further studied the effect of weight control on the profiles of lipid, gene and protein expression in TPA treated skin tissues. The mice were randomly assigned into 4 groups: ad libitum-fed sedentary control (control), ad libitum-fed exercise (AL+Exe), exercise but pair-fed at the amount of control (PF+Exe), and 20% of dietary calorie restriction (DCR). At the end of 10 weeks, the mice were treated with TPA topically for two hours. The body weights were significantly reduced in DCR and PF+Exe but not AL+Exe mice when compared with the control. Plasma and skin tissue triacylglycerides were significantly decreased in PF+Exe and DCR groups but not AL+Exe. Similar impact was found for the diacylglyceride profile in both plasma and skin tissue accordingly. Using Affymetrix microarray, 784, 223, and 152 probe sets were respectively found significantly changed by DCR, PF+Exe, and AL+Exe. PF+Exe and DCR showed similar impact on signaling pathways-related gene expression as analyzed by GenMAPP. Of the total 86 proteins identified by 2D-DIGE proteomics, 20 proteins were significantly changed by DCR. Overall, our results showed weight control via DCR or pair-fed exercise rather than exercise with ad libitum feeding significantly reduced body weight and body fat, resulting in reduction of IGF-1 and IGF-1-induced signaling such as PI3K and PI-related pathway. The overall impact upon lipid profiling and gene and protein expression by weight loss suggests many other mechanistic targets. Although we could not ambitiously clarify all the changes were related to anticancer mechanisms in the scope of this study, understanding of the relationship between weight control and TPA-induced skin cancer risk as well as IGF-1-dependent signaling pathways may reveal intrinsic mechanisms and provide novel approaches to prevent cancer in the future studies.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Valentina M. Remig / The frequency of dietary supplement use has increased in recent years, especially among older adults. National studies estimated 60-65% of older adults were using at least one dietary supplement, typically a multi-vitamin, multi-mineral (MVMM) supplement. Dietary supplement use has been reported to improve the micronutrient intakes of older adults. The current research study focused on the use of dietary supplements, dietary intakes, and impact of vitamin/mineral (VM) supplements on the nutrient intakes of older Kansans. Volunteer subjects, 60+ years of age, were recruited from 35 senior centers across Kansas. Subjects completed a questionnaire asking for demographic information, current health status, and dietary supplement use. Dietary supplement use was verified for 319 subjects. Two subsequent 24-hour diet recalls were completed by 312 subjects. The sample population was primarily white, non-Hispanic females. Nearly 86% of participants used at least one dietary supplement; most commonly MVMM, calcium, vitamin D, and fish oil. Dietary intake analyses compared intakes of dietary supplement (DS) users to non-dietary supplement (NDS) users. DS subjects consumed significantly higher dietary intakes of carbohydrate, fiber, vitamin A, and zinc than NDS subjects. The NDS group consumed undesirably higher intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and sodium. These results support previous findings that DS users consume healthier diets. The impact of VM supplement use on micronutrient intake compared only the intakes of subjects using VM supplements (n=263) to the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI). Subjects were most likely to have inadequate dietary intakes of vitamin D, calcium, vitamin E, and magnesium. All micronutrient intakes were improved with the inclusion of VM supplements; most improved were vitamin E, folic acid, vitamin D, vitamin B6, and calcium. Despite supplementation, nearly half of subjects still exhibited low intakes of vitamin D, calcium, and magnesium. Supplementation did not consistently exceed the Tolerable Upper Limit established by the DRIs for most nutrients. In conclusion, dietary supplement use was very common in the sample population, DS subjects had generally healthier diets, and VM supplement use improved micronutrient intake without contributing to concern for toxicity.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Mark D. Haub / Background: Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a growing sport that places competitors into specific weight classes to level the competition field. Athletes “cut weight” to compete in a weight class lower than their “walk around” weight. Techniques for cutting weight include dehydration, starvation and exercise in hot environments jeopardizing health and performance. Higher-protein diets (HPD) have been shown to improve weight loss by increasing satiety, thermogenesis, decreasing total energy intake, and maintain lean mass during periods of energy deficiency, such as weight loss. Research regarding the impact of HPD on performance is limited and conflicting. Specific Aims: The central hypothesis for this study was: HPD diets will elicit greater weight loss and enhance body composition compare to tradition low-fat diets in non-obese, active individuals. The three specific aims of this study are: 1) examine the effects of HPD on weight loss, 2) evaluate the impact of HPD of athletic performance, and 3) determine the effectiveness of HPD for accelerated weight loss. Methods: Military personnel participating in the Combatives program were recruited. Participants were assigned a HPD (40% CHO, 30% PRO, 30% fat), traditional low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet (65% CHO, 15% PRO, 20% fat), or an ad libitum diet for 12-day to 6-weeks depending on their training program. Fields tests for pre- and post-intervention measures of performance included: vertical jump and leg power index to measure explosive power, 600 meter shuttle run for anaerobic capacity and 1.5 mile run for aerobic capacity. Pre- and post-intervention of weight and body composition were determined using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Diet analysis software was used to determine nutrient intakes during the study. SPSS statistical software was used to determine descriptive statistics, paired t-tests, Pearson’s Correlations and one-way ANOVA. Results & Conclusions: Due to the unanticipated high rate of dropout, statistical significance was difficult to determine, however, there was a trend for the HPD to elicit fat-free mass retention and it not negatively impact performance. Discrepancies in energy and nutrient intake made dietary comparison difficult. Future studies with larger samples and greater dietary control are needed to further evaluate the research goals of this study.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Edgar Chambers IV / Food consumption continues to be an area of focus for nutrition, health, and consumer research. Eating adequate amounts of fruits and vegetables, appropriate levels of dairy products, increasing whole grains, and switching to lean meat and fish all are associated with managing weight and reducing the risk of chronic diseases including cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. Research has shown that food consumption rates vary across segments of the U.S. population depending on several socio-demographics including race/ethnicity, gender, and age. The purpose of this research was to examine consumption of various foods including fruits and vegetables, dairy products, selected types of grain and starchy vegetable foods, and meat and legume products based on race and ethnicity, age, and gender using 24-hour recall dietary data from survey years 2003-2006 of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and the United States Department of Agriculture. The 2003-2006 NHANES 24-hour dietary recall data, known as What We Eat In America, were used for analysis of food consumption. Two non-consecutive days of 24-hour dietary recall and demographic information were analyzed to assess consumption patterns of participants who: 1) were at least two years of age, 2) had complete and satisfactory dietary recall data, and 3) were members of a selected racial/ethnic group. The sample size was 17, 885 males and females: 4,994 African Americans (non-Hispanic); 7,525 Whites (non- Hispanic); and 5,366 Hispanics (Mexican American and other Hispanics). Individual Foods Files (IFF), containing foods coded for each individual, were accessed via the NHANES website to use for the consumption comparison analysis. There were food files for each of the two recall days of each survey year, 2003-2004 and 2005-2006. These findings indicate that there are racial/ethnic, age, and gender differences in the consumption of various foods. Fruits, vegetables, and dairy products were only consumed by 70-80% of the sample populations. Only 18-42% of the respondents reported eating whole grain breads, legumes, nuts, and seeds. However, meat and meat product consumption was reported by more than 75% of the sample. African Americans consumed fewer fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and dairy products compared to Whites and Hispanics. African Americans had a tendency to consume culturally relevant items such as greens, sweet potatoes, grits, and chicken. Children consumed more French fries, frankfurters, peanut butter, macaroni and cheese, and hamburgers than adults. Consumption rates among males and females depended on race/ethnicity. However, within a racial/ethnic group, gender consumption differences were minimal. This research demonstrates that the types of foods eaten for all groups of food products vary by racial and ethnic population, and age or gender subgroups. African Americans' fruit and vegetable consumption trends are distinct in many cases. This research serves as a current baseline for future research exploring the relationship of dietary intake and race and ethnicity. Given that African Americans have higher incidences of chronic diseases, there is a need to continue to develop culturally sensitive dietary counseling and intervention programs. Furthermore, this study highlights areas of opportunities to expand research involving African Americans from a sensory, business and promotional perspective capitalizing on the diversity of food habits.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Mark D. Haub / Objective: The objective was to compare the postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses to nutrition bars containing either cross-linked RS type 4 (RS4[subscript]XL) or standard wheat starch in normoglycemic adults (n=13; age= 27±5 yr; BMI=25±3 kg/m²). Methods: Volunteers completed three trials during which they consumed a glucose beverage (GLU), a puffed wheat control bar (PWB), and a bar containing RS4[subscript]XL matched for available carbohydrate content. Serial blood samples were collected over two hours and glucose and insulin concentrations were determined and the incremental area under the curve (iAUC) was calculated. Results: The RS4[subscript]XL peak glucose and insulin concentrations were lower than the GLU and PWB (p<0.05). The iAUC for glucose and insulin were lower following ingestion of RS4[subscript]XL compared with the GLU and PWB trials. Conclusions: These data illustrate, for the first time, that directly substituting standard starch with RS4[subscript]XL, while matched for available carbohydrates, attenuated postprandial glucose and insulin levels in humans. It remains to be determined whether this response was due to the dietary fiber and/or resistant starch aspects of the RS4[subscript]XL bar. Keywords: insulin sensitivity, diabetes, dietary fiber, prebiotic, glycemic index

Master of Science / Department of Hotel, Restaurant, Institution Management and Dietetics / Carol W. Shanklin / The purposes of this study were to explore factors associated with residents’ dining experience in assisted living facilities and to investigate the influence that these factors had on perceived quality and residents’ satisfaction with their dining experience. Food quality, service quality, mealtime customization, and dining room environment were the four constructs explored. Focus groups were conducted with residents of three assisted living facilities to determine attributes of the constructs that were important to them. A total of 22 residents participated in the three focus groups. A questionnaire developed by Huang was revised to include measurement items identified in the focus groups. The questionnaire was distributed to residents of 16 randomly selected assisted living facilities within a 110 mile radius of the research institution. Of the 492 residents in 16 facilities, 246 completed the questionnaire for a response rate of 50%. Residents evaluated the attributes on a 5-point likert scale (1-strongly disagree; 5-strongly agree). Service quality (4.03) and dining room environment (3.97) attributes were rated significantly higher than food quality (3.64) and customization attributes (3.42). Resident satisfaction also was evaluated on a 5-point scale (1-very dissatisfied; 5-very satisfied). Residents were satisfied with the overall dining experience (3.94) and the overall facility (3.97). Residents were less satisfied with food served (3.67) or the amount of choices they had at meals (3.58). Residents were satisfied with services (3.95) and the dining room atmosphere (3.98). Satisfaction with services and the dining room atmosphere were significantly higher than food served and amount of choices at mealtimes. Residents’ perceptions of food quality, service quality, level of customization, and dining room environment had a positive influence on their satisfaction with the overall dining experience. Residents’ perceptions of food quality had a positive influence on satisfaction with the food served, service quality impacted satisfaction with services, level of customization effected satisfaction with the amount of choices, and dining room environment influenced satisfaction with the dining room atmosphere. Administrators, foodservice directors, and dietitians employed in assisted living facilities can use the results to improve the dining experience for residents and ultimately improve residents’ quality of life.

Master of Science / Department of Human Nutrition / Valentina Remig / The use of computer-based and personal assistive technology is projected to increase as the boomer generation continues to age. Technology is infiltrating and improving the lives of older adults, including their education. This study determined older adults’ preferences toward the use of technology to learn about nutrition and health. The sample included 132 volunteer subjects, mostly female, white non-Hispanic, ranging in age from 65−92 years, recruited from local organizations, senior centers, churches, and senior apartments. All participants completed a newly developed, 32-item pilot tested questionnaire that included demographic and self-rated health characteristics, current use of technology, factors that motivate and/or influence attitudes and interest toward use of technology, and preferred formats and topics of interest for nutrition and health education information. The results indicated that, overall, these older adults self-rated their health as either excellent or good, and that those who were younger and among the higher income brackets and education levels were more likely to use computers than those who were older, with less income, and education levels. Findings also indicated that older adults were interested and willing to learn about technology, had positive attitudes toward it and showed a high demand for user-friendly programs and training. Finally, results show that although newsletters, magazines and television were mostly preferred by older adults, computers were also considered very helpful and were used to learn about nutrition and health information.

Master of Science / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Charles E. Walker / Potassium bromate is a well-known strong chemical oxidant. It was once widely used by the baking industry all over the world, especially for making frozen doughs. Since potassium bromate has been banned in many countries, many researchers have studied in this area to find a replacement. Ascorbic acid was often combined with potassium bromate in frozen dough making as an oxidant dough additive. In addition, ascorbic acid has different chemical oxidant activity, and its function in yeast leavened dough is not as strong as is potassium bromate. More dough additives have been found, such as enzymes. Enzymes play key roles in bread making. In recent years, enzyme usage in bread making has been increasing, especially for shelf-life extension. Based on the results from this research, potassium bromate use can be replaced by a combination of ascorbic acid and hemicellulase/endoxylanase. However, using hemicellulase/endoxylanase alone cannot benefit frozen dough quality such as finer crumb cell or increasing final bread volume. These experimental results also show that using a combination of ascorbic acid and hemicellulase/endoxylanase can delay the development of bread firmness (staling) after baking. As frozen storage time increased, the firmness of frozen dough bread increased, and the bread tended to have a coarser texture. Hence, larger and uneven grain cells reflect a gray or dark crumb color.