Schoolbag carriage represents a considerable daily occupational load for children (Negrini et al., 1999). Whittfield et al., (2001) and Puckree et al., (2004) have reported that the carriage of heavy schoolbags is a suspected aetiological factor of the daily physical stress of school pupils. Methods: One hundred and eighty-seven pupils voluntarily participated in a controlled, descriptive, epidemiological retrospective study. Subjects’ biographical, epidemiological, exercise history and lifestyle information was gathered by a self-report questionnaire (adapted from Puckree et al., 2004). Subjects’ body mass, stature and mass of their schoolbags were measured using a Detecto stadiometer scale. Digital images, electromyographical muscular activity and a posture profile assessments were captured in the frontal and sagittal planes whilst the pupils were in the loaded (carrying a schoolbag) and the unloaded phases (not carrying schoolbags). These images were analyzed using biomechanical software, Dartfish. The study being retrospective in nature recorded the prevalence of schoolbag carriage musculoskeletal pain over the last 12 months. Descriptive statistical tests such as mean, mode, frequency, percentages and inferential chi-square statistical test (set at a probability of 0.05) were employed to analyze the data. Results: The result indicated that 78.99% of the cohort experience musculoskeletal pain due to schoolbag carriage (p<0.0001). The most prevalent anatomical sites of pain were the shoulders (37.04%), neck (20.37%), lumbar (11.73%) and thorax (10.49%) (p<0.0001). The mean mass of the schoolbag carried by the cohort was 5.45kg which was approximately 11.5% of their body mass. The predisposing factors of the musculoskeletal pain were the methods employed to carry the schoolbag (single strap (20.21%) versus double straps (76.6%), altered posture due to excessive schoolbag mass together with a reduced craniovertebral angle (p<0.05). Discussion & Conclusion: The excessive schoolbag mass carried by the pupils placed strain on the immature vertebral column of these pupils thus causing postural deviations which induced musculoskeletal pain and discomfort. / Thesis (M.Sport Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the application of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) human health risk assessment framework for quantifying the adverse human health effects of exposure to inhaled kerosene pollutants in the South African context. The study was based in the informal settlement of Cato Crest in Cato Manor, Durban. This dissertation includes a theoretical review of the environment/health Relationship, the US EPA health risk assessment approach, it's history, and the health effects of kerosene combustion products. Chapter three outlines the methodology for the study, detailing how time-activity pattern data and air quality results were collected from the community of Cato Crest. Chapter four presents the results of the health risk assessments conducted for nitrogen dioxide, benzene and toluene exposure - using both local and US EPA exposure values in the health risk assessments. A critical evaluation of the US EPA human health risk assessment framework in the South African context is provided in chapter five. The results of the study revealed that a 1-hour exposure to the nitrogen dioxide concentrations measured in Cato Crest would not present any adverse health effects. A 24-hour exposure to NO2 using US EPA default exposure values provided a slight possibility of adverse health effects being experienced in sensitive individuals in some houses. 24-Hour exposure to NO2 using local exposure values could result in both sensitive individuals and even some healthy individuals experiencing adverse health effects in all houses. Potential adverse health effects include coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, broncho-constriction and increased airway resistance. Sensitive individuals include those with asthma or other respiratory diseases. Exposure to 24hour benzene concentrations (using US EPA default exposure values) is not likely to result in individuals experiencing adverse health effects. Exposure to the same benzene concentrations at local exposure times will cause potential adverse health effects in sensitive individuals. Sensitive individuals are those with respiratory ailments and blood diseases or disorders. Exposure to monitored toluene concentrations over a 24-hour period (using both US EPA default exposure values and local exposure values) is unlikely to result in adverse health effects being experienced by any individuals. The US EPA human health risk assessment framework is seen as applicable to South Africa where developed areas are concerned (as these areas are quite similar to North American populations). In areas of South Africa that are considered less developed or undeveloped, local conditions need to be substituted into health risk assessments where possible. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

Dampness can cause the development of moulds in buildings and pose a threat to the quality of the building structure, indoor air quality and health of the occupants. An emerging source of housing related problems are the building materials commonly used in housing construction, which can influence respiratory health. There is concern regarding the quality of the housing stock in the Durban Metropolitan area with regard to dampness and its the potential impact on the health of occupants. To elucidate this issue, a study was conducted to assess natural ventilation, dampness and mouldiness in dwellings of the Waterloo Housing development (Durban Metropolitan Area), between February 2001 and December 2003. A total of 491 randomly selected homes were visually inspected and residents were surveyed by means of a structured questionnaire. Three hundred and eighteen (318) air and surface mould samples were collected in duplicate, totalling 636 samples and analysed in the laboratory. Building characteristics and physical conditions were recorded and noted. Temperature and relative humidity readings were also taken during the survey. After the analysis of the 491 questionnaires, physical conditions of the dwellings were found to be poor and of concern. With the number (1178) and size of habitable rooms in the dwellings; the occupancy of 2414 people with an average of 2.05 persons per room, indicated overcrowding and congestion. About 51% (n=249) of the dwellings surveyed were found to be experiencing dampness (>3m2) and 47% (n=230) had visible surface moulds, primarily on the walls (at least an average of 1m2) . Predominant airborne fungal organism identified included; Aspergillus (23%-indoors, 26outdoors), Cladosporium (47%- indoors, 51%-outdoors), Penicillum (27%-indoors, 26%-outdoors) spp. Natural ventilation was also inadequate in 261 (53%) dwellings, which did not have airbricks. This inadequacy significantly promotes the occurrence of dampness and surface moulds (p < 0.05). With poor ventilation, dampness and mould growth in the dwellings, there was a high number of cases with upper respiratory tract health complaints; like Cough - 25% (n=122), Sinuses - 25% (n=121), flu symptoms 23% (n=llO) lower respiratory infections such as asthma - 27% (n=130), and chest infections - 23% (n=113). Asthma, wheeze, runny nose and allergy to dust were statistically associated with dampness (p < 0.05), mouldiness (p < 0.03) and lack of ventilation (p < 0.01). Buildings separate their occupants from hostile external environments and create a better internal environment for them, therefore dwellings must be constructed in a manner that promotes the health and well being of the occupants. In terms of guiding regulations, there were several omissions and non-compliance with existing local building bye-laws in the construction of houses, leading to adverse implications. Improved workmanship, appropriate material selection and compliance with the relevant guidelines during planning and construction inter alia, are recommended when addressing housing issues, thereby promoting the interest, health and well-being of the users. / Thesis-(M.Med)- University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2004.

A content analysis of 36 newspapers in 12 states were examined to determine if balanced reporting of pesticide and water issues existed in 1995. There were two hypotheses explored in this study: One, that journalists tend to bias their reporting of pesticide and water issues by using more mentions from environmental groups than other sources; and two, that journalists tend to bias their reporting by using more negative terminology than positive terminology when reporting on pesticide and water issues.An on-line search using the Lexis-Nexis newspaper database produced 302 usable articles for this study. The number of mentions of environmental groups, government agencies and agri-industry officials were listed in coding sheets. Also, negative versus positive terminology was coded.A chi-square analysis of coded data derived from the selected articles demonstrated that journalists use a balance of sources when reporting on pesticide and water issues. However the analysis also shows that journalists frequently use more negative terminology, such as "toxic," or "contaminated," than positive when writing about pesticide and water issues.Recommendations at the end of this study are made to help reporters understand more thoroughly the definitions of some of the terminology they use in writing about pesticide and water issues. / Department of Journalism

The focus of this thesis is an AIDS education programme targeting prostitutes in the industrial town of Thika, Kenya. The thesis challenges three key assumptions underlying the programme, namely: (1) prostitutes in Kenya form a readily identifiable, homogenous social category; (2) medically, they are a source of HIV-infection, and a risk group due to their sexual activity; (3) once provided with knowledge about AIDS transmission and prevention, they have the incentive, and the means to modify their risk behaviour. The notions of "prostitution", "risk", and "responsibility", as assumed in the medical discourse of the programme, are contrasted with those found in the narratives of local health workers and the women involved in the programme. The incongruences in these sets of understandings have implications for the interpretation of epidemiological findings and the planning of AIDS prevention programmes in general. By lending an overall priority ranking to the risk factor of sexual behaviour, the epidemiological paradigm informing the programme masks social and economic co-factors placing women at risk, as well as the role of men in transmission of the HIV-virus. Further, the paradigm ignores important factors in the motivation of health behaviour, namely, the relative significance that women attribute to the risk of AIDS, as well as their envisaged control over health.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- La Trobe University, 2005. / Research. "A Thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy [to the] School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria". Includes bibliographical references (leaves 255-293). Also available via the World Wide Web.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, 2009. / Advisor: Michael W. Ross. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.Sc.)--University of Alberta, 2009. / A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Agricultural and Resource Economics, Department of Rural Economy. Title from pdf file main screen (viewed on September 20, 2009). Includes bibliographical references.

L’évaluation des risques des produits chimiques utilise pour les effets non mutagènes un seuil de dose sans effet. L’objectif est d’élaborer une démarche qui permette de quantifier les risques non mutagènes. Elle s’inspire de celle utilisée pour les effets cancérigènes mutagènes. L’intérêt d’une approche sans seuil, est illustré par le cas du chlordécone en Guadeloupe. L’évaluation officielle indique 1 à 3 % de la population exposée au-dessus du seuil de dose toxique (atteintes rénales). Personne n’a quantifié les risques lorsque ce seuil est dépassé. Cependant, plusieurs millions d’euros (M€) sont investis chaque année pour la prévention des expositions.L’étude s’appuie uniquement sur des données disponibles en 2013. Les connaissances sur les modes d’actions toxiques du chlordécone permettent d’identifier les effets possibles à faible dose. Les études expérimentales multidoses ou les études épidémiologiques fournissent les données pour dériver des fonctions expositions risques (FER). Les données d’expositions internes (chlordéconémies) sont disponibles avant et après la mise en place en 2003 des actions de prévention. Les risques, estimés en multipliant les expositions par les FER, sont convertis en impacts via le nombre de personnes exposées. Les impacts sont monétarisés avec les DALYs et VOLY.Les effets possibles du chlordécone à faible dose chronique sont : cancers de la prostate et du foie, atteintes rénales et développement cognitif. Evaluer sans seuil et avec les expositions internes, le nombre de décès par cancer du foie avant 2003 est de 5,4 /an et après 2003 de 2,0 /an. Soit 3,4 décès/an évités grâce à la baisse des expositions. Pour les cancers de la prostate on compte respectivement : 2,8 et 1,0 (gain : 1,8 décès/an), pour les atteintes rénales : 0,10 et 0,04 (gain : 0,06 décès/an). Les pertes de points de QI sont de 1 173 pts/an et 1 003 pts/an (gain : 168 pts/an). Avant 2003, le coût total de ces impacts s’élève à 31,8 M€2006/an [10,6-64,3]. Les pertes de points de QI contribuent à 62 % du coût total, les cancers du foie 27 %, les cancers de la prostate 11 % et les atteintes rénales 0,6 %. Après 2003, le coût des impacts est de 21,3 M€2006/an [5,8-42,8]. Les bénéfices dus à la baisse des expositions sont de 10,5 M€2006/an. Les dépenses de préventions étant de 3,25 M€2006/an, le bénéfice est 3 fois plus élevé. La prise en compte d’un seuil de dose sans effet ne change pas significativement ces résultats. Evalué avec les expositions externes, le coût total des impacts ne représente plus que 4 % du coût avec les expositions internes. Une analyse de sensibilité par simulation Monté Carlo, montre que la variable « exposition » est la plus influente sur les résultats.Ce travail est le premier à prendre en compte un scénario d’évaluation sans seuil, ce qui est de plus en plus souvent recommandé pour les perturbateurs endocriniens. C’est aussi le premier à monétariser les impacts sanitaires du chlordécone. Cette approche est féconde d’informations utiles à la décision. Elle permet de comparer des options fondamentales comme l’existence ou non d’un seuil, la prise en compte d’expositions externes ou internes. Elle permet aussi de comparer le coût des actions de prévention aux bénéfices sanitaires qu’elles engendrent. Les résultats obtenus facilitent la hiérarchisation des priorités de sécurité sanitaire. On recommande cette démarche quantitative pour les facteurs d’environnement auxquels sont déjà exposées les populations. Les actions de prévention en Guadeloupe sont efficientes et justifiées au plan du coût social. Des enquêtes épidémiologiques sur le rôle du chlordécone dans les pathologies qui n’ont pas pu être prises en compte (neurotoxicité adulte, maladies auto immunes, autres effets sur le développement) seraient nécessaires. Il serait utile de prévoir des études mécanistiques avant les études épidémiologiques. Prolonger la cohorte TIMOUN permettrait de réduire l’incertitude sur le développement cognitif. / Risk assessment of chemicals uses for non-mutagenic effects a threshold dose without effect. The aim is to develop a risk assessment framework that allows quantification of non-mutagenic risks. It is inspired by the approach used for genotoxic carcinogens. The added value for safety decision making is shown on the case of chlordecone exposure in Guadeloupe. The official assessment is 1 to 3% of the population are exposed above the threshold (kidney damage). No one has quantified the risks when the threshold is exceeded. However, several million euros (M€) are invested annually for the prevention of exposure to chlordecone in Guadeloupe.The study is based only on published data available in 2013. The analysis of modes of action will identify the possible effects of chlordecone at chronicle low doses. Multidoses experimental studies or epidemiological studies provide data to derive exposure-response functions (ERF). The internal exposure data (blood chlordecone concentration) are available for Guadeloupe before and after the introduction in 2003 of preventive actions. The external exposure data are available only after 2003. Risks, estimated with exposures and ERF, are converted into impacts through the number of people exposed. The impacts are monetized via DALYs and VOLY.Four effects of chlordecone can occur at chronic low dose: prostate and liver cancers, kidney damages and cognitive development impairments. Without threshold and with internal exposure data, the estimated numbers of deaths from liver cancer are respectively before and after 2003: 5.4 /year and 2.0 /year. That is 3.4 deaths avoided per year by reducing exposure. For prostate cancer there are respectively 2.8 and 1.0 /yr (gain: 1.8 /yr) and for kidney damages 0.10 and 0.04 /yr (gain: 0.06 /yr). Loss of IQ points are 1 173/yr and 1 003 /yr (gain = 168 pt./yr). Before 2003, the total annual cost of these impacts is 31.8 million €2006 [10.6 to 64.3]. Impacts on cognitive development account for 62% of the total, liver cancer 27%, prostate cancer 11% and kidney damage 0.6%. After 2003, the cost of impacts is 21.3 M€/yr [5.8 to 42.8]. The benefits due to the reduction of exposures (avoided impacts) are 10.5 M€/yr [4.8 to 21.5]. Compared to annual spending estimated at 3.25 M€/yr, the annual benefit is three times higher. Including a threshold dose in the model do not significantly change the results. Use of the external exposure data, dramatically decreased the costs of impacts down to 4% of the costs estimated with internal exposures data. A sensitivity analysis with Monte Carlo simulation show that the "exposure" variable is the one that most influences the results.This work is the first to consider a quantitative assessment of health risks scenario without threshold, which is more and more often recommended for endocrine disrupters. It is also the first to monetize health impacts of chlordecone in Guadeloupe. This approach proves fruitful of useful information for decision making. It enables to compare basic options such as whether or not a threshold should be used in the model, taking into account any external or internal exposures. It also allows a comparison of the cost of preventive actions with the health benefits they generate. The results obtained facilitate the prioritization of actions for health safety. This quantitative approach is recommended for environmental factors to which are already exposed populations. Actions for reducing exposure to chlordecone in Guadeloupe are justified and efficient in terms of social cost. Epidemiological surveys to study the role of chlordecone in diseases that could not been taken into account for lack of knowledge (adult neurotoxicity, autoimmune diseases, and other developmental effects) would be needed. It would be useful to provide mechanistic studies before epidemiological studies implementation. Extend follow-up of the TIMOUN cohort could reduce uncertainty about cognitive development.

By gathering information from a volunteer sample of men who sleep with men (MSM) in the Johannesburg inner city, the study aimed to discover those decisions and behaviour that influence their health decision-making and health-seeking behaviour, particularly as far as HIV and their sexual health was concerned. Eleven in-depth interviews were conducted by three interviewers using a semistructured interview guide which asked questions on demographics, health-seeking behaviour, sexual orientations and behaviour, knowledge of HIV/AIDS and community support. During analysis, collected data was classified into the themes of access to health care, personal and general MSM HIV risk perceptions, sexual behaviour, alcohol and unprotected sex, prostitution, religion and stigma, violence and discrimination. This study was the first qualitative study researching MSM in the Johannesburg inner city and provides useful baseline information for further qualitative MSM studies in the geographical area and for the development of MSM aligned interventions. / Sociology / M.A. Sociology