The last two decades have seen new insights, data and analytical methods to establish the behaviour of structures in fire. These methods have slowly migrated into practice and now form the basis for modern quantitative structural fire engineering. This study presents a novel methodology for determining the imposed heat fluxes on structural members. To properly characterise the temperature rise of the structural elements, a post-processing model for computational fluid dynamics tools was developed to establish the heat fluxes imposed on all surfaces by a fire. This model acts as a tool for any computational fluid dynamics model and works on the basis of well resolved local gas conditions. Analysis of the smoke layer and products of combustion allow for heat fluxes to be defined based on smoke absorption coefficients and temperatures. These heat fluxes are defined at all points on the structure by considering full spatial and temporal distributions. Furthermore, heat fluxes are defined by considering directionality and both characteristic length and time scales in fires. Length scales are evaluated for different structural member geometries, while time scales are evaluated for different structural materials including applied fire protection. It is the output given by this model that provides the input for the thermal analysis of the structural members that is a necessary step prior to the structural analysis to be undertaken. The model is validated against the experimental results of the previously mentioned large scale fire tests, showing good agreement. In addition, comparisons are made to current methods to highlight their potential inadequacies.

A pesquisa realizada tratou do estudo da transferência de calor e do fluxo crítico durante a ebulição convectiva no interior de canais de diâmetro reduzidos a partir de dados levantados em bancadas experimentais construídas para esta finalidade. Extensa pesquisa bibliográfica foi efetuada e os principais métodos disponíveis para previsão de coeficiente de transferência de calor, fluxo crítico e mapas de escoamento foram levantados. Os resultados obtidos foram parametricamente analisados e comparados com os métodos da literatura. Pela primeira vez para microcanais, resultados experimentais foram levantados por um mesmo autor em laboratórios distintos buscando verificar a tendência e comportamentos. Tal comparação tem sua importância destacada em face das elevadas discrepâncias observadas na literatura quando resultados de autores distintos, obtidos em condições similares, são comparados. Os resultados levantados foram utilizados na elaboração de modelos que consideram os padrões de escoamento observados em microcanais. A incorporação dos padrões permitiu o desenvolvimento de modelos mecanísticos para coeficiente de transferência de calor, fluxo crítico e critérios para a caracterização da transição entre macro e microcanais baseados na formação do padrão de escoamento estratificado e na simetria do filme líquido no escoamento anular. / This research comprises an experimental and theoretical study on flow boiling heat transfer and critical heat flux inside small diameter tubes based on data obtained in experimental facilities specially designed for this purpose. A broad literature review was carried out and the main methods to predict the heat transfer coefficient, critical heat flux and flow patterns were pointed out. The experimental results were parametrically analyzed and compared against the predictive methods from literature. For the first time, microchannels experimental results obtained by an unique researcher in distinct laboratories were compared and a reasonable agreement was observed. The importance of such a comparison is high-lighted for flow boiling inside microchannels due to the high discrepancies ob-served when results from independent laboratories obtained under similar experimental conditions are compared. Moreover, the experimental results obtained in the present study were used to develop correlations and models for the heat transfer coefficient and heat flux that takes into account the flow patterns observed in microchannels. The heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux models were developed based on mechanistic approach. In addition, criteria to characterize macro to microchannel transition were proposed based in the occurrence of the stratified flow pattern and the liquid film symmetry under annular flow conditions.

A têmpera dos aços envolve a austenitização de uma peça seguida por um resfriamento rápido para promover a formação de microestrutura martensítica. É necessário avaliar os meios de têmpera para manter o processo de têmpera sob controle. Os parâmetros mais importantes no processo de resfriamento são o coeficiente de transferência de calor e/ou o fluxo de calor entre o meio de têmpera e a peça a ser resfriada. Um dos métodos de se avaliar os meios de têmpera (meios de resfriamento) e saber o que está acontecendo dentro da peça durante o resfriamento do ponto de vista térmico é o problema inverso de condução de calor. O problema inverso de condução de calor consiste na determinação de parâmetros como fluxo de calor, taxa de resfriamento e temperatura em qualquer posição através da peça, assim como o coeficiente de transferência de calor. Esses parâmetros são obtidos a partir de medições de temperatura em um ou mais pontos dentro da peça. O escopo deste trabalho foi desenvolver um software baseado no problema inverso condução de calor para avaliar meios de resfriamento para têmpera. A validação deste código foi feita usando água, óleo de soja, óleo mineral e solução aquosa de NaNO3. / Steels quenching involves part austenitization followed by a fast cooling to promote martensitic microstructure formation. It is necessary to evaluate quenchants in order to keep the quenching process under control. The most important cooling process parameters are the heat transfer coefficient and/or the heat flux between the quenchant and the part to be cooled. One of the methods to evaluate quenchants (cooling media) and to know what is happening inside the part during the cooling in the thermal point of view is the inverse heat conduction problem. The inverse heat conduction problem consists in the determination of parameters like heat flux, cooling rate and temperature in any position across the part, as well as the heat transfer coefficient. These parameters are obtained from temperature measurements in one or more points inside the part. The scope of this work was to develop a software based in the inverse heat conduction problem in order to evaluate quenchants for quenching. The validation of this code was made using water, soybean oil, mineral oil and NaNO3 aqueous solution.

Combustion in cryogenic engines is a complex phenomenon, involving either liquid or supercritical fluids at high pressure, strong and fast oxidation chemistry, and high turbulence intensity. Due to extreme operating conditions, a particularly critical issue in rocket engine is wall heat transfer which requires efficient cooling of the combustor walls. The concern goes beyond material resistance: heat fluxes extracted through the chamber walls may be reused to reduce ergol mass or increase the power of the engine. In expander-type engine cycle, this is even more important since the heat extracted by the cooling system is used to drive the turbo-pumps that feed the chamber in fuel and oxidizer. The design of rocket combustors requires therefore an accurate prediction of wall heat flux. To understand and control the physics at play in such combustor, the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach is an efficient and reliable numerical tool. In this thesis work, the objective is to predict wall fluxes in a subcritical rocket engine configuration by means of LES. In such condition, ergols may be in their liquid state and it is necessary to model liquid jet atomization, dispersion and evaporation.The physics that have to be treated in such engine are: highly turbulent reactive flow, liquid jet atomization, fast and strong kinetic chemistry and finally important wall heat fluxes. This work first focuses on several modeling aspects that are needed to perform the target simulations. H2/O2 flames are driven by a very fast chemistry, modeled with a reduced mechanism validated on academic configurations for a large range of operating conditions in laminar pre- mixed and non-premixed flames. To form the spray issued from the atomization of liquid oxygen (LOx) an injection model is proposed based on empirical correlations. Finally, a wall law is employed to recover the wall fluxes without resolving directly the boundary layer. It has been specifically developed for important temperature gradients at the wall and validated on turbulent channel configurations by comparison with wall resolved LES. The above models are then applied first to the simulation of the CONFORTH sub-scale thrust chamber. This configuration studied on the MASCOTTE test facility (ONERA) has been measured in terms of wall temperature and heat flux. The LES shows a good agreement compared to experiment, which demonstrates the capability of LES to predict heat fluxes in rocket combustion chambers. Finally, the JAXA experiment conducted at JAXA/Kakuda space center to observe heat transfer enhancement brought by longitudinal ribs along the chamber inner walls is also simulated with the same methodology. Temperature and wall fluxes measured with smooth walls and ribbed walls are well recovered by LES. This confirms that the LES methodology proposed in this work is able to handle wall fluxes in complex geometries for rocket operating conditions.

En vue d'applications futures dans le domaine de la récupération d'énergie à basse température à partir de microsystèmes, la connaissance des transferts thermiques aux parois est d'une grande importance. Ces mesures sont réalisées à l'aide de capteurs spécifiques qui permettent de connaître le flux thermique total échangé entre la paroi sur laquelle ils sont installés et le milieu environnant. Cette étude se situe dans le cadre du développement de fluxmètres thermiques a gradient répondant aux contraintes liées aux machines thermiques de type micro-moteur Stirling. Six types de fluxmètres thermiques à sondes à résistance ont été développés à partir de différents matériaux, géométries et formes de capteurs. Une étude électrothermique, prenant en compte l'effet d'auto-échauffement, a été menée et validée expérimentalement. Les techniques de fabrication et de caractérisation, opérés majoritairement en salle blanche, ont permis de réaliser de nombreux capteurs à couches minces. Des supports spécifiques pour ces capteurs ont été développés. Ces capteurs de flux thermique, dont les résistances ont été étalonnées par rapport à une sonde de référence de haute précision, permettent également la mesure de la température. Pour mesurer la densité de flux thermique, deux méthodes ont été testées. La première méthode est indirecte : elle consiste à mesurer le gradient de température à l'aide de deux sondes à résistance en platine. La deuxième méthode est directe : elle repose sur un étalonnage en flux. Enfin, l'influence de l'intrusion des capteurs sur le répartition des flux thermiques dans la pièce à mesurer, avec ou sans support spécifique, a été étudiée. / For future applications in the field of low-temperature energy have sting in microsystems, knowledge of wall heat transfer is of great importance. These measurements are carried out using specific sensors which makes possible to know the total heat flux exchanged between walls and the surrounding environment. This study concerns the development of a gradient heat flux sensor compliant with their requirements associated with thermal machines such as micrometric Stirling engines. Six types of heat flux sensor with resistance temperature detector have been developed from different materials, with various geometries and shapes of sensing elements. An electro thermal study, taking into account the self-heating effect, was carried out and experimentally validated. The fabrication and characterization techniques, mainly carried out in clean rooms, allowed to produce numerous thin-film sensors. Specific housings for these sensors have been developed. These heat flux sensors, whose resistances have been calibrated with a highly accurate reference probe, also allow measuring the temperature. To measure the heat flux density, two methods were tested. The first method is indirect : it consists in measuring the temperature gradient using two platinum resistance probes. The second method is direct : it is based on heat flux calibration. The calibration and measurement benches have been modeled. Then, the experimental and numerical results have been compared. Finally, the influence of the sensor intrusion on the thermal fluxes distribution in the investigated sample, with or without a specific housing, has been studied.

A novel type of precast, prestressed concrete structural element is being implemented in load-bearing systems in buildings. These structural elements combine the use of high-performance, self-consolidating concrete (HPSCC) and non-corroding carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) prestressing tendons; this produces highly optimized, slender structural elements with excellent serviceability and (presumed) extended service lives. More widely, the use of new construction techniques, innovative materials, and ground-breaking designs is increasingly commonplace in today's rapidly evolving building construction industry. However, the performance of these and other structural elements in fire is in general not well known and must be understood before these can be used with confidence in load-bearing applications where structural fire resistance is a concern. Structural fire testing has traditionally relied on the use of the standard fire resistance test (i.e. furnace test) for assuring regulatory compliance of structural elements and assemblies, and in many cases also for developing the scientific understanding of structural response to fire. Conceived in the early 1900s and fundamentally unchanged since then, the standard testing procedure is characterized by its high cost and low repeatability. A novel test method, the Heat-Transfer Rate Inducing System (H-TRIS), resulting from a mental shift associated with controlling the thermal exposure not by temperature (e.g. temperature measured by thermocouples) but rather by the time-history of incident heat flux, was conceived, developed, and validated within the scope of the work presented in this thesis. H-TRIS allows for experimental studies to be carried out with high repeatability, imposing rationally quantifiable thermal exposure, all at low economic and temporal cost. The research presented in this thesis fundamentally seeks to examine and understand the behaviour of CFRP prestressed HPSCC structural elements in fire, with emphasis placed on undesired 'premature' failure mechanisms linked to the occurrence of heat-induced concrete spalling and/or loss of bond between the pretensioned CFRP tendons and the concrete. Results from fire resistance tests presented herein show that, although compliant with testing standards, temperature distributions inside furnaces (5 to 10% deviation) appear to influence the occurrence of heat-induced concrete spalling for specimens tested simultaneously during a single test; fair comparison of test results is therefore questionable if thermal exposure variability is not explicitly considered. In line with the aims of the research presented in this thesis, H-TRIS is used to carry out multiple comprehensive studies on the occurrence of concrete spalling and bond behaviour of CFRP tendons; imposing a quantified, reproducible and rational thermal exposure. Test results led to the conclusion that a "one size fits all" approach for mitigating the risk of heat-induced concrete spalling (e.g. prescribed dose of polypropylene (PP) fibres included in fresh concrete), appears to be ineffective and inappropriate in some of the conditions examined. This work demonstrates that PP fibre cross section and individual fibre length can have an influence on the risk of spalling for the HPSCC mixes tested herein. The testing presented herein has convincingly shown, for the first time using multiple repeated tests under tightly controlled thermal and mechanical conditions, that spalling depends not only on the thermal gradients in concrete during heating but also on the size and restraint conditions of the tested specimen. Furthermore, observations from large scale standard fire resistance tests showed that loss of bond strength of pretensioned CFRP tendons occurred at a 'critical' temperature of the tendons in the heated region, irrespective of the temperature of the tendons at the prestress transfer length, in unheated overhangs. This contradicts conventional wisdom for the structural fire safety design of concrete elements pretensioned with CFRP, in which a minimum unheated overhang is generally prescribed. Overall, the research studies presented in this thesis showed that a rational and practical understanding of the behaviour of CFRP prestressed HPSCC structural elements during real fires is unlikely to be achieved only by performing additional standard fire resistance tests. Hence, H-TRIS presents an opportunity to help promote an industry-wide move away from the contemporary pass/fail and costly furnace testing environment. Recommendations for further research to achieve the above goal are provided.

The advective motion of seawater governs the transport of almost everything, animate or inanimate, present in the ocean and those lacking the ability to outswim the currents have to follow the flow. This makes modelling of advective ocean transports a powerful tool in various fields of science where a displacement of something over time is studied. The present thesis comprises four different applications of ocean-transport modelling, ranging from large-scale heat transports to the dispersion of juvenile marine organisms. The aim has been to adapt the method not only to the object of study, but also to the available model-data sets and in situ-observations. The first application in the thesis is a study of the oceanic heat transport. It illustrates the importance of wind forcing for not only the heat transport from the Indian to the Atlantic Ocean, but also for the net northward transport of heat in the Atlantic. In the next study focus is on the particle-transport differences between an open and a semi-enclosed coastal area on the Swedish coast of the Baltic Sea. The modelled patterns of sedimentation and residence times in the two basins are examined after particles having been released from a number of prescribed point sources. In the two final studies the transport-modelling framework is applied within a marine-ecology context and the transported entities are larvae of some Scandinavian sessile and sedentary species and non-commercial fishes (e.g. the bay barnacle, the blue mussel, the shore crab and the gobies). The effects of depth distribution of dispersing larvae on the efficiency of the Marine Protected Areas in the Baltic Sea are examined. Further, the diversity in dispersal and connectivity depending on vertical behaviour is modelled for regions with different tidal regimes in the North Sea, the Skagerrak and the Kattegat. The spatial scales dealt with in the studies varied from global to a highly resolved 182-metres grid. The model results, excepting those from the global study, are based on or compared with in situ-data. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 3: Submitted. 4: Manuscript.</p>

Microchannel heat exchangers present many advantages, such as reduced size, high thermal efficiency and low fluid inventory; and are increasingly being used for heat transfer in a wide variety of applications including heat pumps, automotive air conditioners and for cooling of electronics.However, the fundamentals of fluid flow and heat transfer in microscalegeometries are not yet fully understood. The aim of this thesis is to contribute to a better understanding of the underlying physical phenomena in single-phase and specially flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerants in small channels. For this purpose, well-characterized heat transfer experiments have been performed in uniformly heated, single, circular, vertical channels ranging from 0.64 to 1.70 mm in diameter and using R-134a, R-22 and R-245fa as working fluids. Furthermore, flow visualization tests have been carried out to clarify the relation between the two-phase flow behavior and the boiling heat transfer characteristics. Single-phase flow experiments with subcooled liquid refrigerant have confirmed that conventional macroscale theory on single-phase flow and heat transfer is valid for circular channels as small as 640μm in diameter. Through high-speed flow boiling visualization of R-134a under non adiabatic conditions seven flow patterns have been observed: isolated bubbly flow, confined bubbly flow, slug flow, churn flow, slug-annular flow, annular flow, and mist flow. Two-phase flow pattern observations are presented in the form of flow pattern maps. Annular-type flow patterns are dominant for vapor qualities above 0.2. Onset of nucleate boiling and subcooled flow boiling heat transfer of R-134a has been investigated. The wall superheat needed to initiate boiling was found as large as 18 ºC. The experimental heat transfer coefficients have been compared to predictions from subcooled flow boiling correlationsav ailable in the literature showing poor agreement. Saturated flow boiling heat transfer experiments have been performed with the 640 μm diameter test section. The heat transfer coefficient has been found to increase with heat flux and system pressure and not to change with vapor quality or mass flux when the quality is less than ∼0.5. For vapor qualities above this value, the heat transfer coefficient decreases with vapor quality. This deterioration of the heat transfer coefficient is believed to be caused by the occurrence of intermittent dryout in this vapor quality range. The experimental database, consisting of 1027 data points, has been compared against predictions from correlations available in the literature. The best results are obtained with the correlations by Liu and Winterton (1991) and by Bertsch et al. (2009). However, better design tools to correctly predict the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient in small geometries need to be developed. Dryout incipience and critical heat flux (CHF) have been investigated in detail. CHF data is compared to existing macro and microscale correlations. The comparison shows best agreement with the classical Katto and Ohno (1984) correlation, developed for conventional large tubes. / QC 20101101

Furnaces that heat metal parts (blooms) prior to hot-working processes such as rolling or forging are called pre-forming reheat furnaces. In these furnaces, the fundamental idea is to heat the blooms to a prescribed temperature without very large temperature gradients in them. This is to ensure correct performance of the metal parts subsequent to reheating. Due to the elevated temperature in the furnace chamber, radiation is the dominant mode of heat transfer from the furnace to the bloom. In addition, there is convection heat transfer from the hot gases to the bloom. The heat transfer within the bloom is by conduction. In order to design a new furnace or to improve the performance of existing ones, the heat transfer analysis has to be done accurately. Given the complex geometry and large number of parameters encountered in the furnace, an analytical solution is difficult, and hence numerical modeling has to be resorted to. In the present work, a numerical technique for modelling the steady-state and transient heat transfer in a reheat furnace is developed. The work mainly involves the development of a radiation heat transfer analysis code for a reheat furnace, since a major part of the heat transfer in the furnace chamber is due to radiation from the roof and combustion gases. The code is modified from an existing finite volume method (FVM) based radiation heat transfer solver, The existing solver is a general purpose radiation heat transfer solver for enclosures and incorporates the following features: surface-to-surface radiation, gray absorbing-emitting medium in the enclosure, multiple reflections off the bounding walls, shadowing effects due to obstructions in the enclosure, diffuse reflection and enclosures with irregular geometry. As a part of the present work, it has now been extended to include the following features that characterise radiation heat transfer in the furnace chamber · Combination of specular and diffuse reflection as is the case with most real surfaces · Participating non-gray media, as the combustion gases in the furnace chamber exhibit highly spectral radiative characteristics Transient 2D conduction heat transfer within the metal part is then modelled using a FVM-based code. Radiation heat flux from the radiation model and convection heat flux calculated using existing correlations act as boundary conditions for the conduction model. A global iteration involving the radiation model and the conduction model is carried out for the overall solution. For the study, two types of reheat furnaces were chosen; the pusher-type furnace and the walking beam furnace. The difference in the heating process of the two furnaces implies that they have to be modelled differently. In the pusher-type furnace, the heating of the blooms is only from the hot roof and the gas. In the walking beam furnace, the heating is also from the hearth and the blooms adjacent to any given bloom. The model can predict the bloom residence time for any particular combination of furnace conditions and load dimensions. The effects of variations of emissivities of the load, thickness of the load and the residence time of billet in the furnaces were studied.

This work has been aimed at developing a mechanistic, transient, 3-D numerical model to predict the behavior of an evaporating thin liquid film on a non-uniformly heated cylindrical rod with simultaneous parallel and cross flow of vapor. Interest in this problem has been motivated by the fact that the liquid film on a full-length boiling water reactor fuel rod may experience significant axial and azimuthal heat flux gradients and cross flow due to variations in the thermal-hydraulic conditions in surrounding subchannels caused by proximity to inserted control blade tip and/or the top of part-length fuel rods. Such heat flux gradients coupled with localized cross flow may cause the liquid film on the fuel rod surface to rupture, thereby forming a dry hot spot. These localized dryout phenomena can not be accurately predicted by traditional subchannel analysis methods in conjunction with empirical dryout correlations. To this end, a numerical model based on the Level Contour Reconstruction Method was developed. The Standard k- turbulence model is included. A cylindrical coordinate system has been used to enhance the resolution of the Level Contour Reconstruction Model. Satisfactory agreement has been achieved between the model predictions and experimental data. A model of this type is necessary to supplement current state-of-the-art BWR core thermal-hydraulic design methods based on subchannel analysis techniques coupled with empirical dry out correlations. In essence, such a model would provide the core designer with a "magnifying glass" by which the behavior of the liquid film at specific locations within the core (specific axial node on specific location within a specific bundle in the subchannel analysis model) can be closely examined. A tool of this type would allow the designer to examine the effectiveness of possible design changes and/or modified control strategies to prevent conditions leading to localized film instability and possible fuel failure.