This thesis argues that the iconography on Seleucid coins was created in order to appeal to the various ethnic groups within the empire and thereby reinforced the legitimacy of the dynasty. It first examines the iconography of Seleucus I and argues that as Seleucus became more secure in his rule he began to develop a new iconography that was a blend of Alexander’s and his own. This pattern changed under Antiochus I. He replaced the Zeus of Alexander and of Seleucus with Apollo-on-the-omphalos. At approximately the same time, a dynastic myth of descent from Apollo was created and promulgated. It is argued that in addition to the traditional view that Apollo was readily identifiable to the Greco-Macedonians within the empire he was also accessible to the Babylonians through the god Nabû and to the Persians as a Greek (or Macedonian) version of the reigning king. This ambiguity made Apollo an ideal figure to represent the multi-ethnic ruling house. This also explains the dynasty’s reluctance to deviate from the iconography established by Antiochus I. This thesis continues to explore the role of Apollo and other gods in creating an iconography which represented Seleucid power ending with the reign of Antiochus III. This thesis also incorporates the numismatic representations of the king as divine into the debate on ruler cult. This evidence suggests that the Seleucids may have had some form of ruler cult before the reign of Antiochus III.

The present thesis aims to analyse the manner in which the ethnically and culturally diverse environment of Eastern Anatolia during the Hellenistic era has influenced the royal houses of the Mithradatids, Ariarathids, Ariobarzanids and Commagenian Orontids. The focus of analysis will be represented by the contact and osmosis between two of the major cultural influences present in the area, namely the Iranian (more often than not Achaemenid Persian) and Greco-Macedonian, and the way in which they were engaged by the ruling houses, in their attempt to establish, preserve and legitimise their rule. This will be followed in a number of fields: dynastic policies and legitimacy conceptions, religion, army and administration. In each of these fields, discrete elements betraying the direct influence of one or the other cultural traditions will be followed and examined, both in isolation and in interaction with other elements, together with which they form a diverse, but nevertheless coherent whole. The eventual result of this analysis will be to demonstrate how the intersection of cultures and the willing appropriation by the ruling houses of what we might call, using a modern term, ‘multiculturalism’ has created a new, interesting and robust tradition, whose influence would endure well into the Roman era.

Aphrodite is one of the oldest deities of the Graeco-Roman pantheon, and her cult has a rich and varied history in its development throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. The goddess has been associated with numerous female deities from other cultures, including Astarte, Inanna, and Ishtar from the Near East; Hathor and Isis from Egypt; and Venus from Rome. The origins and development of the cult of Aphrodite have long been favoured topics in Classical scholarship, with notable works including Friedrich’s "The Meaning of Aphrodite" (1978) and Budin’s "The Origin of Aphrodite" (2003). The nature of syncretism between deities continues to be a popular topic of debate, and collections such as "Transformation of a Goddess: Ishtar-Astarte-Aphrodite" (2014) are produced from conferences and symposiums. Likewise, interest in the history of the Ptolemaic dynasty remains high; in particular, the field of numismatics eagerly anticipates the final release of Lorber’s "Coins of the Ptolemaic Empire" (2018 - ), which will replace the seminal work of Svoronos (1904) as the primary catalogue. Although it is common for works concerning the Ptolemaic dynasty to reference Aphrodite, detailed discussion of her cult often arises only in the context of Arsinoë II, with whom she was syncretized. This thesis aims to bring Aphrodite to the forefront, and produce a cohesive narrative which highlights the role of her cult in the development of the Ptolemaic dynasty. It surveys the presence of the goddess in Egypt to determine her nature and significance, before examining the manner in which her cult was manipulated to the benefit of the Ptolemaic dynasts, predominantly through syncretism to the queens Arsinoë II and Berenice II. The discussion of syncretism is extended to include Isis, whose increasing popularity is connected to the eventual decline of the cult of Aphrodite in Egypt. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA) / Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, his empire was divided between his generals. Ptolemy I obtained control of Egypt, and established a dynasty that endured for over two centuries before falling to Rome. This thesis examines the foundation of the dynasty, and the manner in which Ptolemy I and his early successors secured their power. It focuses on Greek and Egyptian religion, and argues that the cult of Aphrodite was integral to the legitimization and consolidation of the dynasty. Discussion extends beyond Aphrodite to those with whom she was associated, including the Egyptian goddess Isis, and the Ptolemaic queens Arsinoë and Berenice. The aim of the thesis is to highlight the complexities of religious practice, and demonstrate the significance of Aphrodite and the sociopolitical impact of her cult in Egypt and throughout the Hellenistic world.

L’objectif de cette étude régionale est de mobiliser la documentation épigraphique locale pour tenter d’appréhender la société chypriote de l’époque hellénistique et les enjeux internes de l’administration lagide. Elle s’inscrit en cela dans la continuité des travaux récents dans le domaine des études chypriotes. L’intégration profonde de Chypre dans la koinè politique et culturelle hellénistique est l’une des principales conséquences de la domination lagide sur Chypre. Parmi les marqueurs importants de l’intégration de l’île dans ce milieu culturel commun, l’adoption de la rhétorique honorifique propre aux cités grecques est particulièrement significative. La mise en évidence d’une notabilité locale constitue un des enjeux principaux de cette étude. L’importance des traditions religieuses dans la société chypriote, l’implantation manifeste des Ptolémées et de leurs représentants dans les grands sanctuaires, invitent également à analyser en détail les relations d’emprise mutuelle décelées entre les cultes locaux et les souverains lagides. L’étude de la représentation honorifique des Ptolémées se révèle, sur ce point, capitale. La longue période hellénistique de Chypre semble in fine s’insérer de façon cohérente dans le système politique et administratif local, fondé de façon traditionnelle sur la coexistence d’un roi et de cités. Les modalités de la négociation entamée par les cités chypriotes avec le pouvoir lagide, si elles ne sont pas entièrement élucidées par la lecture du corpus épigraphique, relèvent d’une interprétation locale, ouverte et affirmée de la relation entre les poleis et les souverains à l’époque hellénistique. / This regional study focuses on Cypriot epigraphic evidence in order to understand the Hellenistic Cypriot society and the local issues of the Ptolemaic administration. The in-depth integration of Cyprus into the Hellenistic political and cultural koine is one of the major consequences of the Ptolemaic conquest. The adoption of common Greek honorific practices is one of the most evident indicators of this process. This study first highlights the presence and the activity of a local elite. The importance of religious traditions in Cyprus, the explicit presence of the Ptolemies and of their officials in the great sanctuaries of the island, encourage to study in detail the relations of reciprocal influence between Cypriot cult and the Ptolemaic kings. The numerous documents regarding the honorary representation of the Ptolemies in Cyprus is crucial. The epigraphical documentation shows the dialogue between local elites and the Ptolemaic administration. The long Hellenistic period of Cyprus seems in fine to fit into the local political and administrative system, traditionally based on the joint existence of king and cities. The subtleties of the negotiation initiated by the Cypriot cities with the Ptolemaic power, though they are not fully elucidated by the epigraphic evidence, prove to be the results of a local, open and self-aware interpretation of the relationship between the poleis and the Ptolemaic kings.

This thesis is a comparative analysis of the concept of military loyalty in the armies of Greek city-states and Hellenistic kingdoms, combining ancient evidence with the use of modern theories of organisational structures and combat motivation. It presents a basic contrast between Polis armies, which displayed high levels of loyalty, and Royal armies, which suffered from frequent cases of non-compliance and disloyalty, and argues that this contrast is a consequence of two fundamentally different ways of generating compliance and loyalty. Polis armies, it will be shown, predominantly exercised normative power, i.e. they relied on a combination of symbolic incentives and rewards, and a civic ideology of sacrifice for the common good; correspondingly, the soldiers, over whom this power was exercised, predominantly displayed moral involvement with their army, that is they complied voluntarily, out of a belief in the righteousness of their cause and in the alignment of their own benefit with that of their organisation. Royal armies, on the other hand, primarily utilised remunerative power, i.e. the allocation and manipulation of material rewards, which in turn was met by predominantly calculative involvement from the soldiers, i.e. a utilitarian assessment of risk and reward. These two compliance relationships - normative-moral and remunerative-calculative - lay at the heart of the different levels of loyalty we find in Polis and Royal armies. Nevertheless, at times this distinction broke down, revealing areas of overlap and a complex layering of motivations and types of power. The argument will be developed over the course of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides the theoretical framework. It explains Amitai Etzioni's Compliance Theory, detailing the three congruent compliance models organisations may use. These models are based on the type of power the organisational elites (generals and officers) apply, and the type of involvement present in the lower participants (soldiers): normative power and moral involvement, remunerative power and calculative involvement, and lastly, coercive power and alienative involvement. I will also stress the importance of the socio-political system over that of primary groups for the generation of compliance and loyalty. Chapter 2 presents the evidence for the different levels of loyalty in Polis and Royal armies, showing how citizen forces were robustly cohesive in the field, whereas the armies of the Successors and Hellenistic kings frequently succumbed to treachery, non-compliance, and disloyalty. I argue that one of the main reasons for this contrast lay in the powerful socio-political system that enveloped Polis armies, allowing them to develop a normative-moral compliance relationship. At the same time, however, it caused intense political infighting. Chapter 3 will explore one feature of the socio-political system: funerary practices. We shall analyse how armies and societies commemorated their soldiers, and witness the effects of civic ideology on the expressive content in soldiers' epitaphs. The evidence suggests strong normative elements for Polis armies, but does not allow us to draw firm conclusions regarding Royal armies. Chapter 4 will discuss the third type of congruent compliance relationship, i.e. coercive-alienative. I describe how neither army had access to, or need of, an effective coercive apparatus, as both had found other ways to create and maintain compliance. Chapter 5 will analyse the reward structures of Polis and Royal armies, and I will draw attention to the overall symbolic nature of rewards in citizen armies, and the largely material aspects of Royal army rewards, while pointing out ways in which Royal army elites strove to exert normative power through settling soldiers. This reflects the predominant types of power and involvement that characterised these organisations. Finally, a concluding section highlights the contrasts that were revealed in this thesis, but also discusses areas of convergence where the 'Polis army vs. Royal army' dichotomy broke down: creating and maintaining loyalty is a complex task, and military organisations employ more than one way to achieve it.

La présente thèse, intitulée « Contribution à l’histoire et à l’épigraphie de la Béotie hellénistique de 335 à 167 av. J.-C. », La thèse propose une nouvelle synthèse sur certains aspects de l’épigraphie et de l’histoire de la Confédération béotienne hellénistique de 335 av. J.-C., date de la destruction de Thèbes par Alexandre le Grand, jusqu’en 171, date de la dissolution de la confédération par les Romains, et 167 av. J.-C. date de l’instauration d’un nouvel ordre oligarchique en Béotie. En dehors des ouvrages publiés par Br. Gullath en 1982 et surtout par M. Feyel en 1942, il n’existe aucune étude globale de l’histoire et de l’épigraphie de la Béotie hellénistique, alors même que plusieurs études de grande qualité sont parues depuis, notamment sous la signature de D. Knoepfler. Le réexamen des inscriptions déjà publiées et l’édition des inscriptions récemment découvertes contribuent à faire progresser notre connaissance de l’histoire et de l’épigraphie béotiennes. Le premier volume propose une nouvelle chronologie des archontes de la Confédération, qui éclaire d’un jour différent une série d’événements historiques, comme l’intégration d’Oponte au Koinon. Jointe à une étude de l’organisation politique et militaire du Koinon, elle permet de proposer une nouvelle histoire événementielle, de 335 jusqu’en 171. Le deuxième volume consiste en un choix d’inscriptions, dont 28 sont inédites et plusieurs autres n’avaient pas été réexaminées depuis le XIXe s. La thèse dans son ensemble met en évidence le perfectionnement des institutions de la Confédération béotienne, et les apports du Koinon à l’idée fédérale. / This dissertation puts forward a new synthesis of several aspects of the epigraphy and history of the Boeotian koinon from the 335 B.C. to between 171 B.C., date of the dissolution of the federation by the Romans and 167 B.C, date of the establishment of a new oligarchic regime by the Romans. Ever since M. Feyel’s major work of 1942, and to some extent the publication of B. Gullath’s 1982 piecemeal investigation into early Hellenistic Boeotia, we have not had a comprehensive treatise on the history and epigraphy of Hellenistic Boeotia, with the exception of a series of seminal studies by D. Knoepfler. The scrutiny of previously published inscriptions and the publication of new epigraphical documents in the second volume of this thesis offer novel perspectives on the study of Boeotian epigraphy and history. The first volume of the dissertation comprises a new chronology of the federal archons of Boeotia. This new chronology has important ramifications for the history of Boeotia during this period, for example for the date of the integration of the city of Opous into the Boeotian federation. The first volume also includes a new study of the political and military organisation of the Boeotian koinon and cities during the Hellenistic period, on the basis of new epigraphical material and the publication of numerous related studies. In effect, the whole results in a new history of Hellenistic Boeotia. In the second volume of this thesis one finds a selection of published and unpublished inscriptions from several Boeotian cities. More specifically, volume II includes 28 unpublished epigraphical texts as well as a fresh examination of inscriptions that in many cases have not been thoroughly studied since the 19th century. In sum, these two volumes offer a major new synthesis on the Hellenistic Boeotian koinon, one of the most developed and democratic federal organization of ancient Greece.

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Sebbene Filippo V sia uno dei monarchi antichi meglio attestati nella tradizione letteraria ed epigrafica, la complessità della sua regalità sfugge ancora alla ricerca storica moderna, che finora ha preferito concentrarsi sulla coeva espansione romana nel Mediterraneo. Dopo la vecchia monografia di Walbank (1940; 19602), la tesi costituisce dunque la prima analisi politica della basileia di Filippo V e della sua relazione con le leghe greche alla fine del III secolo a.C. La ricerca collega all'orizzonte politico e istituzionale ellenistico i primi 12 anni di governo di Filippo V (229-217 a.C.) ripercorrendo le fasi dell’azione politica del re: una prima fase riguarda principalmente il ruolo di Filippo durante la reggenza e il regno di Antigono Dosone; una seconda fase esplora tra il 222 e il 220 l'inizio della guerra con gli Etoli; una terza sezione è dedicata all'apertura di un fronte navale nel 219 e al successo della campagna etolica. La quarta parte indaga sull'impegno del 218 in Peloponneso di Filippo, mentre l'ultima sezione approfondisce l’azione diplomatica e militare di Filippo nel 217 e gli accordi di pace a Naupatto. Anche grazie alla buona documentazione epigrafica e letteraria, Filippo V è un paradigma unico per ridefinire il significato della regalità ellenistica. Considerando i suoi legami dinastici, la politica giudiziaria, le innovazioni militari, le relazioni diplomatiche e le riforme amministrative prima dell'intervento romano in Oriente, la ricerca tenta di fornire una prima descrizione e un'analisi della monarchia macedone matura e della sua relazione con il mondo greco; cerca inoltre di stabilire le caratteristiche della regalità ellenistica macedone nel momento dell’incontro con la potenza romana, nel tentativo di distinguere le sue peculiarità nel III secolo rispetto a quelle dell'età di Alessandro, a prescindere dalle deformazioni della propaganda di parte romana. / Although Philip V is one of the best epigraphically and literarily attested ancient monarchs, the structure, performance, and the rationale of his kingship still elude modern scholarship, which has hitherto preferred to focus on the coeval Roman expansion in the Mediterranean. The following is the first political analysis of the ancient Macedonian basileia and its relation with the Greek Leagues at the end of the 3rd century BC. The research connects the first 12 years of rule of Philip V (229-217 BC.) to the Hellenistic political and institutional horizon, and distinguishes five chronological stages of Philip’s reign according to the political agency of the king: an early stage between Demetrios II’s death in 229 and 222, mainly concerned with Philip’s role during Antigonos Doson’s rule and the ascension to the throne; a second phase between 222 and 220 exploring the beginning of the war with the Aitolians; a third section devoted to the opening of a naval front in 219 and the successful Aitolian campaign. Part four investigates Philip’s 218 Peloponnesian engagement, while the last section expands on Philip’s 217 diplomatic and military agency and the peace agreements in Naupactos. Considering his dynastic ties, court politics, military innovations, diplomatic relations and administrative reforms before the Roman intervention in the East, the work attempts to provide a source-based first description and analysis of the mature Macedonian monarchy and its relation with the Greek world. It tries to establish the features of the Mediterranean kingship encountered by the Roman expansion, in the attempt to distinguish those attested in 3rd century Macedonia from those inferred from Alexander’s age evidence, and from the Roman biased propaganda.