Residual compressive stresses can be used to increase the lifetime of parts under cyclic stress as they negate the applied tensile stresses that cause crack initiation and propagation in the material. The goal of this project was to investigate methods to induce stresses, their advantages and disadvantages as well as depth and magnitude of induced stresses, and also to find methods of analyzing the induced residual stresses. This was done on behalf of Epiroc Drilling Tools AB in order for them to induce stresses on the insides of their long, narrow and hollow rods, where stress induction is difficult. Shot peening was used as a reference as that is the method currently in use by the company. The results show that the two most promising methods are cavitation peening and laser shock peening; two relatively new methods with large magnitudes and depth of induced stress as well as a great capability of inducing stresses on the hard-to-reach insides of the rods. Ultrasonic needle peening, ultrasonic shot peening as well as induction hardening, cryogenic treatment and friction stir processing were also investigated. Methods of analyzing the stresses include X-ray diffraction and slitting, hole drilling and ultrasonic methods.

A aplicação de chapas de aço como revestimento em matrizes de forjamento a quente tem sido estudada como uma alternativa inovadora, dentro de um projeto de cooperação internacional titulado “Evaluation of Sheet Metal Covers to Improve Tool Life in Forging”. Pesquisa realizada em parceria com a Alemanha pelo programa BRAGECRIM. Essas chapas serviriam como um metal de sacrifício em matrizes de forjamento a quente, que pretende substituir tratamentos superficiais de alto custo. As limitações geométricas e propriedades mecânicas das chapas garantiriam o sucesso ou não da gravura conforme o design exigido pela ferramenta, como também o número de ciclos de forjamento mantendo-se a integridade. Desta forma, o conhecimento das propriedades mecânicas em chapas e ductilidade torna-se fundamental para garantir os limites de aplicabilidade. Portanto, este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar as propriedades mecânicas e os aspectos metalúrgicos em diferentes temperaturas de duas chapas de alta resistência DP600 e Hardox450®, os quais possuem diferentes microestruturas e ductilidade. Esta escolha se deve as diferentes aplicações que ambos os materiais possuem na indústria automobilística, devido as suas propriedades físicas, com a hipótese que influenciará na aplicação como máscaras que irão proteger as matrizes. Para isso foram realizados ensaios de dureza após ciclos de aquecimento e tração em diferentes temperaturas, com taxa de deformação controlada, simulando as condições térmicas que o material irá suportar durante o processo de forjamento. Para avaliar a ductilidade das chapas foi realizado o ensaio de estiramento biaxial. Uma análise pelo método de elementos finitos foi utilizada no ensaio de estiramento de punção esférico Erichsen, o qual foi possível pela análise de laboratório validar os experimentos e então a realização da simulação de estampagem de uma geometria bi radial em formato de copo. Os resultados de tração e dureza mostram que o DP600 possui considerável resistência mecânica em altas temperaturas com boa ductilidade, porém não maior que o Hardox450®, que perde em termos de ductilidade devido a fenômenos de fragilização em altas temperaturas. A simulação numérica permitiu avaliar como seria o produto estampado em uma geometria 3D, sobre os aspectos geométricos da chapa e os efeitos de anisotropia do DP600, como também suas tensões. / The application of sheet metal cover in hot forging dies has been studied as an innovative alternative, within an international project titled "Evaluation of sheet metal covers to improve tool life in forging". Research carried out in partnership with Germany under the BRAGECRIM program. The sheet metal would apply as a sacrificial membrane in the hot forging die, which intended to replace expensive surface treatments. The geometrical limitations and mechanical properties of the plates would guarantee the success or failure of the engraving according to the design required by the tool, as well as the number of forging cycles maintaining the integrity. In this way, the knowledge of the mechanical properties of the sheet metals and ductility becomes fundamental to guarantee the limits of applicability. Therefore, this work has as objective to evaluate the mechanical properties and the metallurgical aspects in different temperatures of two advanced High Strength Steel Sheets DP600 and Hardox450®, which have different microstructures and ductility. This choice is due to the different applications that both materials have in the automotive industry due to their properties, with the hypothesis that will influence the application as masks that will protect dies. Therefore, a hardness test has performed after heating cycles and tensile tests at different temperatures, with a controlled strain rate, simulating the thermal conditions that the material will withstand during the forging process. Biaxial stretching test to evaluate the ductility of the plates were performed. An inverse analysis by the finite element method was used in the Erichsen biaxial stretching test, in which it has been possible to validate the experiments and then to perform the stamping simulation of a bi-radial geometry in a cup format. The results show that the DP600 has considerable mechanical resistance at high temperatures with good ductility, but not higher than the Hardox450®, which is inferior in terms of ductility due to embrittlement phenomena at high temperatures. The numerical simulation allowed an evaluation of how the product can be stamped in a 3D geometry, the geometric aspects of the plate, the anisotropy effects of the DP600, as well as stress distributions.

L'amélioration des propriétés mécaniques dans les alliages du système Fer-Silicium-Titane grâce à l'introduction d'une précipitation nanométrique a été démontrée dans la littérature. La haute valeur de limite d'élasticité qui peut être atteinte dans ces aciers en fait de bons candidats pour des applications dans l'élaboration de structures automobiles. Dans ce contexte, cette étude a pour objectif de caractériser et comprendre la séquence et la cinétique de précipitation dans ces alliages, ainsi que les relations entre microstructure de précipitation et propriétés mécaniques, dans une démarche de conception d'alliages optimisée. La démarche utilisée a tout d'abord consisté en une caractérisation multi-échelle de la précipitation par diffusion des neutrons aux petits angles, microscopie électronique en transmission et sonde atomique tomographique, qui a permis d'aboutir à une description précise de la structure, composition, taille et fraction volumique des précipités, qui ont ensuite été reproduites par modélisation. Dans un deuxième temps, les tests mécaniques réalisés à température ambiante ont révélé un fort potentiel durcissant, qui dépend du temps et de la température de vieillissement. Des modèles à base physique pour la limite d'élasticité et le taux d'écrouissage (tenant compte des contributions isotropes et cinématiques) ont été appliqués pour décrire les courbes de traction mesurées. Ceux-ci ont permis d'aboutir à une bonne compréhension des relations entre microstructures et propriétés dans le système Fe-Si-Ti. / The Iron-Silicon-Titanium alloy system is known to have an interesting hardening potential thanks to its ability to produce a fine and dense precipitation microstructure. The high yield stress obtained for steels from this system, makes them potential candidates for automotive applications. The aim of this study was to improve the understanding of the precipitation sequence and kinetics, as well as to analyze the influence of the precipitates on the mechanical properties (yield strength and strain hardening) in the objective of alloy design and process optimization. The approach used is classical in physical metallurgy. It consists namely, of the characterization of precipitation followed by the study of the mechanical properties. The characterization of precipitation has been carried out using the combination of Small-Angle Neutron Scattering, Transmission Electron Microscopy and Atom Probe Tomography. This provides an accurate description of the precipitates in terms of crystal structure, composition, size and volume fraction. These properties have been subsequently reproduced with a precipitation model. The mechanical tests performed on the alloy at room temperature, have revealed a high hardening potential that depends on ageing time and temperature. Physically-based models for yield strength and strain hardening rate (including the effect of isotropic and kinematic hardening) have been applied to interpret the measured stress-strain curves, and allow to reach a comprehensive understanding of the microstructure/properties relationship in the Fe-Si-Ti alloy system.

A aplicação de chapas de aço como revestimento em matrizes de forjamento a quente tem sido estudada como uma alternativa inovadora, dentro de um projeto de cooperação internacional titulado “Evaluation of Sheet Metal Covers to Improve Tool Life in Forging”. Pesquisa realizada em parceria com a Alemanha pelo programa BRAGECRIM. Essas chapas serviriam como um metal de sacrifício em matrizes de forjamento a quente, que pretende substituir tratamentos superficiais de alto custo. As limitações geométricas e propriedades mecânicas das chapas garantiriam o sucesso ou não da gravura conforme o design exigido pela ferramenta, como também o número de ciclos de forjamento mantendo-se a integridade. Desta forma, o conhecimento das propriedades mecânicas em chapas e ductilidade torna-se fundamental para garantir os limites de aplicabilidade. Portanto, este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar as propriedades mecânicas e os aspectos metalúrgicos em diferentes temperaturas de duas chapas de alta resistência DP600 e Hardox450®, os quais possuem diferentes microestruturas e ductilidade. Esta escolha se deve as diferentes aplicações que ambos os materiais possuem na indústria automobilística, devido as suas propriedades físicas, com a hipótese que influenciará na aplicação como máscaras que irão proteger as matrizes. Para isso foram realizados ensaios de dureza após ciclos de aquecimento e tração em diferentes temperaturas, com taxa de deformação controlada, simulando as condições térmicas que o material irá suportar durante o processo de forjamento. Para avaliar a ductilidade das chapas foi realizado o ensaio de estiramento biaxial. Uma análise pelo método de elementos finitos foi utilizada no ensaio de estiramento de punção esférico Erichsen, o qual foi possível pela análise de laboratório validar os experimentos e então a realização da simulação de estampagem de uma geometria bi radial em formato de copo. Os resultados de tração e dureza mostram que o DP600 possui considerável resistência mecânica em altas temperaturas com boa ductilidade, porém não maior que o Hardox450®, que perde em termos de ductilidade devido a fenômenos de fragilização em altas temperaturas. A simulação numérica permitiu avaliar como seria o produto estampado em uma geometria 3D, sobre os aspectos geométricos da chapa e os efeitos de anisotropia do DP600, como também suas tensões. / The application of sheet metal cover in hot forging dies has been studied as an innovative alternative, within an international project titled "Evaluation of sheet metal covers to improve tool life in forging". Research carried out in partnership with Germany under the BRAGECRIM program. The sheet metal would apply as a sacrificial membrane in the hot forging die, which intended to replace expensive surface treatments. The geometrical limitations and mechanical properties of the plates would guarantee the success or failure of the engraving according to the design required by the tool, as well as the number of forging cycles maintaining the integrity. In this way, the knowledge of the mechanical properties of the sheet metals and ductility becomes fundamental to guarantee the limits of applicability. Therefore, this work has as objective to evaluate the mechanical properties and the metallurgical aspects in different temperatures of two advanced High Strength Steel Sheets DP600 and Hardox450®, which have different microstructures and ductility. This choice is due to the different applications that both materials have in the automotive industry due to their properties, with the hypothesis that will influence the application as masks that will protect dies. Therefore, a hardness test has performed after heating cycles and tensile tests at different temperatures, with a controlled strain rate, simulating the thermal conditions that the material will withstand during the forging process. Biaxial stretching test to evaluate the ductility of the plates were performed. An inverse analysis by the finite element method was used in the Erichsen biaxial stretching test, in which it has been possible to validate the experiments and then to perform the stamping simulation of a bi-radial geometry in a cup format. The results show that the DP600 has considerable mechanical resistance at high temperatures with good ductility, but not higher than the Hardox450®, which is inferior in terms of ductility due to embrittlement phenomena at high temperatures. The numerical simulation allowed an evaluation of how the product can be stamped in a 3D geometry, the geometric aspects of the plate, the anisotropy effects of the DP600, as well as stress distributions.

Orientadores: Célia Marina de Alvarenga Freire, Itamar Ferreira / Dissertação (mestrado - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T02:38:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Carvalho_IcaroZanettide_M.pdf: 13083038 bytes, checksum: c152edb400a89f8aecfa16c8073e6488 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: O fenômeno da fragilização por hidrogênio no aço AISI 4340 foi investigado devido ao fato do mesmo ser um aço baixa liga de alta resistência bastante suscetível a este fenômeno. A análise foi feita por meio do ensaio de tenacidade à fratura por flexão baseado na norma ASTM E 399 - 09. A matéria prima utilizada foi fabricada segundo dois diferentes processos, sendo o primeiro pelo método convencional de fundição e o segundo pelo processo VAR (vacuum arc refining) de maneira a se obter uma liga com menores quantidades de impurezas. Corpos-de-prova foram retirados da posição L-C das ligas, temperados a 845 oC e revenidos a 3 diferentes temperaturas (350 oC, 400 oC e 500 oC). O carregamento de hidrogênio foi feito por meio de uma célula eletroquímica, onde os corpos-de-prova foram imersos numa solução de H2SO4 0,01 M com aplicação de uma densidade de corrente de 10 mA/cm2 e dois diferentes tempos de hidrogenação, de maneira a se obter dois níveis de contaminação. Após os ensaios, foram feitas fractografias dos corpos-de-prova ensaiados para cada condição de revenimento e contaminação por hidrogênio, sendo observadas as alterações nos micromecanismos de fratura para as diferentes condições. Os resultados obtidos no ensaio de tenacidade à fratura por flexão foram correlacionados ao micromecanismo de fratura em função da dureza e contaminação por hidrogênio. O aço AISI 4340 convencional nas condições de revenimento de 400 oC e 350 oC mostrou-se bastante susceptível à fragilização por hidrogênio, apresentando reduções da ordem de 10% e 20%, respectivamente, nos valores de tenacidade à fratura de corpos-de-prova contaminados. O mesmo não foi observado no aço AISI 4340 convencional temperado e revenido a 500 oC, que não sofreu fragilização devido à sua baixa dureza. O aço AISI 4340 VAR em todas as condições de revenimento apresentou-se muito menos susceptível ao fenômeno, não sendo evidenciadas variações expressivas nas tenacidades à fratura dos corpos-de-prova contaminados e nas superfícies de fratura resultantes / Abstract: The phenomenon of hydrogen embrittlement in AISI 4340 steel was investigated due to the fact that it is a high strength low alloy steel quite susceptible to this phenomenon. The analysis was done through the fracture toughness test by bending based on ASTM E 399-09. The material used was manufactured according two different processes, the first by conventional casting process and the second by VAR (vacuum arc refining) process in order to obtain an alloy with minor amounts of impurities. Specimens were removed from the position L-C of the alloy, quenched at 845 oC and tempered at 3 different temperatures (350 oC, 400 oC and 500 oC). The hydrogen loading was made by means of an electrochemical cell where the specimens were immersed in a solution of 0.01 M H2SO4 by applying a current density of 10 mA/cm2 and two different hydrogenation times, in order to obtain two levels of contamination. After the tests were performed fractographies of specimens tested for each condition of temper and contamination by hydrogen, with observed changes in the micromechanisms of fracture for the different conditions. The test results of fracture toughness by bending were correlated with the micromechanisms of fracture, the microstructure and hydrogen contamination. The conventional AISI 4340 steel under conditions of tempering of 400 °C and 350 °C proved to be very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement, with reductions of 10% and 20%, respectively, on the values of fracture toughness of contaminated specimens. The same was not observed in conventional AISI 4340 quenched and tempered at 500 °C, which did not presented embrittlement due to its low hardness. The AISI 4340 VAR steel in all conditions of temper proved to be much less susceptible to the phenomenon, not showing significant variations in fracture toughness of the contaminated specimens and the resulting fracture surfaces / Mestrado / Materiais e Processos de Fabricação / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Accounting for blast hazards has become one of the major concerns for civil engineers when analysing and designing structures. Recent terrorist attacks and accidental explosions have demonstrated the importance of mitigating blast effects on buildings to ensure safety, preserve life and ensure structural integrity. Innovative materials such as high-strength concrete, steel fibers, and high-strength steel offer a potential solution to increase resistance against extreme dynamic loading and improve the blast resilience of buildings. This thesis presents the results of an experimental and analytical study examining the effect of high-strength concrete, high-strength reinforcement and steel fibers on the blast behaviour of reinforced concrete columns. As part of the study, a total of seventeen reinforced concrete columns with different design combinations of concrete, steel fibers, and steel reinforcement were designed, constructed, and tested under gradually increasing blast loads using the University of Ottawa shock-tube facility. Criteria used to assess the blast performance of the columns and the effect of the test variables included overall blast capacity, mid-span displacements, cracking patterns, secondary fragmentation, and failure modes. The effect of concrete strength was found to only have a moderate effect on the blast performance of the columns. However, the results showed that benefits are associated with the combined use of high-strength concrete with steel fibers and high-strength reinforcement in columns tested under blast loads. In addition to the experimental program, a dynamic inelastic single-degree-of-freedom analysis was performed to predict the displacement response of the test columns. A sensitivity analysis was also conducted to examine the effect of various modelling parameters such as materials models, DIFs, and accumulated damage on the analytical predictions.

Friction Bit Joining (FBJ) is a new technology that allows lightweight metals to be joined to advanced high-strength steels (AHSS). Joining of dissimilar metals is especially beneficial to the automotive industry because of the desire to use materials such as aluminum and AHSS in order to reduce weight and increase fuel efficiency. In this study, FBJ was used to join 7075 aluminum and DP980 ultra-high-strength steel. FBJ is a two-stage process using a consumable bit. In the first stage, the bit cuts through the top material (aluminum), and in the second stage the bit is friction welded to the base material (steel). The purpose of the research was to examine the impact a solid head bit design would have on joint strength, manufacturability, and ease of automation. The solid head design was driven externally. This design was compared to a previous internally driven head design. Joint strength was assessed according to an automotive standard established by Honda. Joints were mechanically tested in lap-shear tension, cross-tension, and peel configurations. Joints were also fatigue tested, cycling between loads of 100 N and 750 N. The failure modes that joints could experience during testing include: head, nugget, material, or interfacial failure. All tested specimens in this research experienced interfacial failure. Welds were also created and examined under a microscope in order to validate a simulation model of the FBJ process. The simulation model predicted a similar weld shape and bond length with 5 percent accuracy. Joints made with external bits demonstrated comparable joint strength to internal bits in lap-shear tension and cross-tension testing. Only external bits were tested after lap-shear tension, because it was determined that external bits would perform comparably to internal bits. Joints made with external bits also exceeded the standard for failure during fatigue testing. Peel tested specimens did not meet the required strength for the automotive standard. Examining specimens under a microscope revealed micro-cracks in the weld. These defects have been shown to decrease joint strength. Joint strength, especially during peel testing, could be increased by reducing the presence of micro-cracks. The external bit design is an improvement from the internal bits for manufacturability and ability to be automated, because of the less-expensive processes used to form the bit heads and the design that lends to ease of alignment.

The first part of the thesis focuses on a research study of high-strength steels. The thesis also includes a conceptual design of the supporting structure of a transshipment trailer, which uses high-strength materials. This design is compatible with the Herkul trailer produced by the company NovaSteel s. r. o. and distributed by the sales network of Romill Brno, spol. s r.o. In its final part, the thesis deals with a stress analysis of the proposed design of the transshipment trailer. Stress-strength and deformation tests were carried out by means of the finite element method.

Structural steel is one of the main building materials used commercial. Its strength is its formality and high yield strength which allows less material overall. Steel is often divided into steel grades such as S275, S355, S420 and so forth. The purpose of this thesis is to look at the strength and weaknesses of the different steel grades and how the area gets effected by higher steel grades. This is done by looking at a real life project where only S355 is used and optimizing for S355, S420 and S460. This is done to shred some light on how much of an improvement the upgrade of steel grade may allow. For each steel grade an optimized cross section is created with the goal of having the lowest area possible. The difference in area for the optimized beams will act as the benchmarking for projected reductions. This optimization is done with the help of Python and follows Eurocode. When looking at the case study, the projected weight reduction is 4,2% for S420 and 7,2% for S460 compared to S355. This reduction is higher on some beams and lower on others. The main driving force for the higher reduced beams is the possibility to utilize more than one type of load condition, example both momentand shear force. Out of the 12 beams, beam 10 have the highest reduction between S355 and S420 which land around 10%. Between S355 and S460 Beam 12 comesin at a area reduction of 14%. As the higher steel grades have a higher equivalent CO2 emission the reduction of equivalent CO2 is lower than the area reduction. The projected reduction of equivalent CO2 for a switch from S355 to S420 is 3,3% and the reduction between S355 and S460 are 5,0%

In North America, cold-formed square and rectangular hollow sections (collectively referred to as RHS hereinafter) of commonly specified cross-sectional dimensions are produced using either the indirect-forming approach or the direct-forming approach. The indirect-forming approach, as the conventional approach of the two, consists of three steps: (i) roll-forming the coil material progressively into a circular hollow section; (ii) closing the section using electric resistance welding (ERW); and (iii) reshaping the circular section into the final square or rectangular shape. On the other hand, the direct-forming approach, as the new approach of the two, roll-forms the coil material directly into the final square or rectangular shape. RHS with similar cross-sectional dimensions but different production histories (i.e., different cold-forming approaches and post-production treatments) are expected to have significantly different material and residual stress properties. However, RHS design provisions in the existing North American steel design standards (AISC 360-16 and CSA S16-19) are in general developed based on research on indirect-formed RHS and currently do not differentiate RHS cold-formed by different approaches. Based on the research presented in Chapter 1 of this thesis, comparing to indirect-formed RHS, direct-formed RHS in general contain lower levels of residual stresses around cross sections, since the flat faces are not severely cold worked during production. This in turn affects member behaviours under compressive and flexural loadings. The test results presented in Chapters 2 and 4 show that direct-formed RHS have superior stub column and beam behaviours, comparing to their indirect-formed counterparts. In particular, the stub column and beam testing programs, covering a wide range of cross-section dimensions and two strength grades (nominal yield stresses of 350 and 690 MPa), show that the slenderness limits in the existing North American steel design standards are excessively conservative for direct-formed RHS, resulting in unnecessary penalty and member strength underestimation. As a result, the existing design formulae are not suitable for direct-formed RHS. In response to this, subsequent finite element (FE) parametric investigations are performed and presented in Chapters 3 and 5. Modified stub column and beam design recommendations for direct-formed regular- and high-strength RHS are proposed. The effects of post-cold-forming hot-dip galvanizing on material properties, residual stresses, stub column behaviours and beam behaviours of direct-formed regular- and high-strength RHS are also studied in Chapters 1-5 of this thesis. Similar to the application of the heat treatment per ASTM A1085 Supplement S1 or the Class H finish per CSA G40.20/G40.21, post-cold-forming galvanizing improves the stub column (Chapter 2) and beam (Chapter 4) behaviours of direct-formed RHS via effective reduction of residual stresses (Chapter 1). Based on subsequent FE parametric investigations, modified stub column and beam design recommendations catering to galvanized direct-formed RHS are proposed in Chapters 3 and 5. / Graduate