Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The understanding of pear branching and bearing habits is required to optimise management practices. The objective of this study was to quantify the branching and bearing habits of pear cultivars under South African conditions of sub-optimal winter chilling. Two-year-old branches of Pyrus communis L. were classified into groups according to the proleptic (from dormant buds) branching habit. In Winter 1998 upright and flat, two-year-old branches were randomly sampled from trees of seven pear cultivars, i.e., Forelle (on Quince A and BPI rootstocks), Abaté Fetel, Flamingo, Packham's Triumph, Golden Russet Bose, Rosemarie and Beurre D'Anjou (all on BPI rootstock). Laterals were classified according to length « lem, 1-5cm, 5-20cm and >20 cm) and position (distal to proximal quadrants on the two-year-old axis). The number of shoots per cm of quadrant length, per length class for each cultivar was subjected to a cluster analysis, then a canonical and a stepwise discriminant analysis. The cultivars were grouped into four groups from Group 1 (Flamingo) which resembles a spurred growth habit with strong apical control, to Group 4 (Packham's Triumph and Golden Russet Bose) which resembles a spreading growth habit and weak apical control. The bearing habits of the same pear cultivars were quantified. In Winter 1998 ten unpruned branches were tagged on trees of each of the seven cultivars. The description started with the development of the main fruiting branch, forming several leaves in the first year of growth (designated year Y), with meristems developing in the leafaxils. In the following season (year Y+1), these axillary meristems have five alternatives: to remain as a latent bud (L), to develop as a vegetative bud (V), to become a flower bud not setting fruit (F), to become a flower bud producing a fruit (P) or to abort and leave a scar (S). Each year the development of these axillary buds were observed and classified anew, giving rise to a sequence. Between 50% ('Forelle/QA') and 75% ('Rosemarie') of buds remained in the growing phase (comprising of V, F or P buds) during the years of monitoring. It was shown that the predominant bud state in the growing phase was V. Although flower formation was low for all cultivars throughout the trial period, 'Packham's Triumph' and 'Rosemarie' displayed a relatively high proportion ofF and P buds in year Y+1. The latter two cultivars also displayed the bourse-over-bourse bearing phenomenon (PP), producing flowers and fruit terminally on bourse shoots. Artificial extinction of reproductive buds was applied in Winter 1999 to individual branches of the pear cultivar Doyenne du Cornice. This pear variety bears on spurs and is prone to biennial bearing. The objective was to reduce the number of growing buds, thereby increasing the allocation of assimilates to remaining reproductive structures. Three thinning intensities, i.e. 0%, 33% and 66% removal of reproductive buds and two methods, i.e. removal of proximal reproductive buds and removal of reproductive buds situated distally on spurs (by means of cutting back) were utilised. Autonomy of fruiting structures was not enhanced, but results warrant the repetition of this trial using whole trees as experimental units. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is belangrik om die vertakkings- en drawyses van pere te verstaan, aangesien bestuurspraktyke hierdeur bepaal word. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die vertakkings- en drawyses van pere onder Suid-Afrikaanse toestande van sub-optimale winterkoue te kwantifiseer. Tweejaar-oue Pyrus communis L. takke is volgens hul proleptiese (vanuit dormante knoppe) vertakkingswyse in groepe geklassifiseer. Regop en plat takke van die peerkultivars Forelle (op Kweper A and BPI onderstamme), Abaté Fetel, Flamingo, Packham's Triumph, Golden Russet Bose, Rosemarie en Beurre D'Anjou (almalop BPI onderstam) is in die winter van 1998 gemonster. Jaarlote is volgens lengte « l cm, 1-5cm, 5-20cm and >20 cm) en posisie (distale tot proksimale kwadrante op die tweejaar-oue draer) geklassifiseer. Die getal lote per cm, per lengte klas per kwadrant vir elke kultivar is toe onderwerp aan 'n groep analise en daarna aan 'n kanoniese en 'n stapsgewyse diskriminant analise. Kultivars is in vier groepe gegroepeer vanaf Groep 1 (Flamingo) wat 'n spooragtige vertakkingswyse en sterk apikale kontrole toon, tot Groep 4 (Packham's Triumph en Golden Russet Bose) met 'n spreidende vertakkingswyse en swak apikale kontrole. Bogenoemde peerkultivars is ook gebruik vir die kwantifisering van drawyses. In die winter van 1998 is tien ongesnoeide takke per boom gemerk. Die beskrywing van die drawyses het begin met die ontwikkeling van die hoof tak van die dra-eenheid. In die eerste jaar van groei (genoem jaar Y) ontwikkel meristeme in die blaar oksels. In die daaropvolgende seisoen (jaar Y+1) is daar vyf ontwikkelings moontlikhede vir die oksellêre knoppe: om latent te bly (L), om vegetatief te ontwikkel (V), om te blom sonder die set van 'n vrug (F), om te blom en 'n vrug te set (P) of om te aborteer en 'n letsel te los (S). Die ontwikkeling van hierdie oksellêre knoppe is elke jaar gemonitor en opnuut geklassifiseer om sodoende 'n reeks te vorm. Gedurende die moniteringstydperk het tussen 50% ('ForelleIKweper A') en 75% ('Rosemarie') van die knoppe in die groeifase (G) (bevattende V, F ofP knoppe) gebly. Die proporsie knop tipes per jaar vir die onderskeie kultivars het getoon dat die oorheersende knop tipe in die G-fase V-knoppe is. Alhoewel blom inisiasie laag was gedurende die hele proeftydperk, het 'Packham's Triumph' en 'Rosemarie' relatiefhoë verhoudings F en P knoppe in jaar Y+1 getoon, wat gepaard gaan met dié kultivars se vermoë om vrugte op een jaar-oue lote te dra. Die beurs-oor-beurs verskynsel (PP) het ook by dié twee kultivars voorgekom. Reproduktiewe knoppe van die peerkultivar Doyenne du Comice is in die winter van 1999 verwyder (kunsmatige abortering) vanaf indivuduele takke. Hierdie peerkultivar dra op spore en is geneig tot alternatiewe drag. Die doel was om die hoeveelheid groeiposisies te verminder en sodoende die allokasie van reserwe assimilate na oorblywende reproduktiewe strukture te verhoog. Drie uitdun intensiteite (0%,33% en 66% van reproduktiewe knoppe verwyder) en twee metodes (verwydering van proksimale spoorknoppe en verwydering van distale spoorknoppe) is gebruik. Outonomiteit van reproduktiewe strukture was nie verhoog nie, maar resultate regverdig die herhaling van dié eksperiment. Daar word aanbeveel dat volledige bome dan as eksperimentele eenhede gebruik word.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The effect of foliar application oftriadimenol (a triazole), Promalin'", or scoring branches on fruit set, fruit size and fruit quality of 'Royal Gala' apples were evaluated. Four treatments were tested, viz., (a) an unsprayed control, (b) triadimenol sprayed on 6 March 1997 (one month after harvest) and then every two weeks for 8 weeks until leaf drop, as well as at mouse ear and full bloom, (c) as treatment b, plus Promalin® two weeks after full bloom, and (d) Promalin® two weeks after full bloom. Four scoring treatments were tested, viz., (a) a control, (b) scoring at full bloom, (c) scoring two weeks after full bloom, and (d) scoring four weeks after full bloom. Promalin® application two weeks after full bloom improved fruit size without any detrimental effects on fruit quality. This application was in addition to the standard commercial applications of Promalin'" as part of the chemical thinning program. The possible negative effect of the G~+7 on return bloom was however not determined. The scoring treatments were not severe enough to influence growth and development significantly and should be investigated again in the future. The influence of bearing position on apple flower and subsequent fruit quality was evaluated. At full bloom in the 1997/98 season, ten flower clusters from the following bearing positions were collected and evaluated: (a) dorsal spurs, (b) ventral spurs, (c) terminal on bourse shoot, (d) terminal on long shoot, and (e) lateral on long shoots. The same bearing positions were used, one week after full bloom, for the 1998/99 season. The flowering pattern was monitored for both seasons and just prior to harvest in both seasons the length and diameter of the fruit were measured as well as the length of the bourse shoot that had developed from the same bud. Fruit thinning by hand was done in 1997 by thinning to the largest fruit per cluster, but no thinning was done in the 1998 season. The results obtained in the morphological analysis of the flower cluster of 'Royal Gala' were not very consistent. In general, the dorsal spurs appeared to be the better quality flowers and the "king" flower is believed to be the best quality flower in the cluster as far as the receptacle dimensions are concerned. When fruit were harvested, no fruit on long shoots, either in the terminal or lateral positions, were found. Even though the percentage of these positions were low at bloom, this indicates a low set potential and possibly poor flower quality of these bearing positions in 'Royal Gala'. The size of the fruit at harvest in 1998/99, did not correlate well with the parameters measured at bloom. The correlation coefficients between bourse shoot length and fruit size were significant, but relatively small. We found a positive correlation between developed seed number and fruit dimensions. Thinning and heading pruning cuts affect fruit size and yield of 'Royal Gala' apple trees. During the 1997 winter trees were pruned as follows: (a) control with no further pruning, (b) thinning cuts of only entire secondary branches (branches that were thicker than half of the trunk diameter were removed at the point of attachment to the trunk), (c) thinning cuts of secondary branches and tertiary fruiting units (positioned on branches), (d) thinning of spurs only, without removal of branches or fruiting units, and (e) thinning cuts of branches and tertiary fruiting units combined with heading back of fruiting units into the spurs leaving four bud on the fruiting units. Treatments (b) through (e), were conducted at light or heavy pruning intensities, i.e., by leaving 300 or 150 reproductive buds/tree, respectively. Pruning was followed up by hand thinning of fruitlets to one fruit per cluster. All pruning treatments increased fruit size, primarily because of a indirect fruit thinning effect except the combined thinning and heading treatments where a direct effect resulted in the largest apples without having a negative effect on yield. In winter 1998 trees were pruned as follows: (a) control with no further pruning, (b) heavy thinning of secondary branches and fruiting units leaving 250 reproductive buds/tree, (c) light thinning of secondary branches and fruiting units leaving 400 reproductive buds/tree, (d) heavy thinning of secondary branches and fruiting units combined with heading back into the spurs of the remaining fruiting units leaving 250 reproductive buds/tree, and (e) light thinning of secondary branches and fruiting units combined with heading back into the spurs of the remaining fruiting units leaving 400 reproductive buds/tree. In 1998/99 season the advantage of pruning on fruit size were not observed. Lastly, the effect of artificial extinction (removal) of flower clusters on fruit size and quality of 'Royal Gala' apples were evaluated. Individual branches were pruned as follows: (a) control, (b) 25 % removal of fruiting spurs, (c) 50 % removal of fruiting spurs, (d) 75 % removal of fruiting spurs to test for any possible enhancements of fruit size. No subsequent hand thinning of fruitlets was done. Thinning by artificial extinction methods of the fruit buds did not influence fruit size, colour, seed set or seed development. No significant differences were found between fruit number, but with 50% and 75% bud removal fewer fruit were counted. In these data the absence of any significant fruit size improvement may be due to the lack of subsequent hand thinning of fruitlets. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die effek van blaarbespuiting van triadimenol en Promalin® asook ringelering op vrugset, vruggrootte en vrugkwaliteit is geëvalueer. Vier behandelings is toegepas nl: (a) onbehandelde kontrole, (b) triadimenol op 6 Maart 1997 en dan elke twee weke tot en met blaarval asook met "muis oor" en volblom, (c) soos behandeling b, plus Promalin® twee weke na volblom, en (d) Promalin® twee weke na volblom. Vier ringelering behandelings is ook toegepas nl: (a) geen ringelering (kontrole), (b) tydens volblom, (c) twee weke na volblom, en (d) vier weke na volblom. Promalin® bespuiting twee weke na volblom verbeter vruggrootte sonder enige nadelige effekte op vrugkwaliteit. Dit moet ingedagte gehou word dat hierdie behandeling van Promalin® was addisioneel toegevoeg tot die standard kommersiele gebruik van Promalin® wat deel vorm van die chemiese uitdun program. Die moontlike negatiewe effek van GA4+7 op blominisiasie is nie bepaal nie. Die ringelering behandelings was nie straf genoeg nie en dit het nie die groei en ontwikkeling betekenisvol beïnvloed nie en sal in die toekoms weer geëvalueer moet word. Verder is die invloed van draposisies op die appel blomkwaliteit en die daaropvolgende vrugkwaliteit geëvalueer. Met vol blom in die 1997/98 seisoen is tien blom trosse van die volgende draposisies versamel en geëvalueer: (a) dorsale spore, (b) ventrale spore, (c) terminaal op beurslote, (d) terminaal op langlote, en (e) lateraalop langlote. Dieselfde draposisies is versamel, een week na volblom, vir die 1998/99 seisoen. Die blompatroon is gemonitor gedurende beide seisoene. Net voor oes is die vruglengte en - deursnee gemeet as ook die lengte van die beurslote wat van dieselfde knop ontwikkel het as die vrugte. Vruguitdinning met die hand tot die grootste vrug per tros was gedoen in die 1997/98 seisoen, maar nie in die 1998/99 seisoen nie. Die resultate wat gekry is met die morfologiese analise van die blom trosse was nie baie konsekwent nie. In die algemeen vertoon die dorsale spore die beste kwaliteit blomme en die "koning" blomme het die grootste blombodems. Met die oes van die vrugte is geen vrugte op lang lote, hetsy in die terminale of laterale posisies gevind nie. Al was die persentasie van die posisies laag met volblom dui dit op lae setpotensiaal en moontlik ook op 'n lae blom kwaliteit van hierdie draposisies vir 'Royal Gala" appels. Die grootte van die vrugte van die 1998/99 oes korreleer nie goed met die parameters wat tydens blom gemeet is nie. Ongelukkig is die vrugte vir die 1998/99 seisoen nie gedurende die na-blom staduim uitgedun nie, wat daartoe bygedra het dat dit moeilik is om afleidings te maak. Die korrelasiekoeffisient tussen die beurslootlengte en vruggrootte was betekenisvol maar redelik klein. 'n Positiewe korrelasie tussen die aantal goed ontwikkelde sade en vrugdimensie is gevind. Die effek van uitdun en terugsnysnitte op vruggrootte eh opbrengs van 'Royal Gala' is ook geëvalueer. Gedurende die 1997 winter is die bome op die volgende manier gesnoei: (a) geen snoei (kontrole), (b) uitdunsnitte van hele sekondêre takke (takke wat dikker was as die helfde van die stam se deursnee by die punt van aanhegting aan die stam), (c) uitdunsnitte van sekondêre takke en tersiêre vrugdraende takke, (d) uitdun van spore alleen sonder om enige takke te verwyder, en (e) uitdunsnitte van sekondêre takke en tersiêre vrugdraende takke gekombineerd met terugsnysnitte van vrugdraende takke in die spoor sisteem in tot net vier spore per tak oorbly. Vir behandelings (b) tot (e) was die behandelings opgedeel in 'n ligte en 'n strawwe uitduning van knoppe deur onderskeidelik uit te dun tot 300 en 150 reproduktiewe knoppelboom. Die snoei was opgevolg deur handuitdunning tot een vrug per tros. Alle snoeibehandelings verbeter vruggrootte, primêr as gevolg van 'n indirekte vruguitdunnings, effek behalwe die behandeling met uitdunsnitte van sekondere takke en tersiêre vrugdraende takke gekombineerd met terugsnysnitte van vrugdraende takke. In hierdie behandeling is daar 'n direkte effek op vruggrootte sonder om 'n negatiewe effek op die oes opbrengs te he. In die winter van 1998 is die bome soos volg gesnoei: (a) geen snoei (kontrole), (b) strawwe uitdun snitte van hele sekondêre takke en vrugdraende takke tot op 250 reproduktiewe knoppe/boom, (c) ligteuitdun snitte van hele sekondêre takke en vrugdraende takke tot op 400 reproduktiewe knoppe/boom, (d) strawwe uitdunsnitte van sekondêre takke en tersiêre vrugdraende takke gekombineerd met terugsnysnitte van vrugdraende takke tot in die spoorsisteem tot op 250 reproduktiewe knoppelboom, en (e) ligte uitdunsnitte van sekondêre takke en tersiêre vrugdraende takke gekombineerd met terugsnysnitte van vrugdraende takke tot in die spoorsisteem tot op 400 reproduktiewe knoppelboom. Geen handuitdunning is gedurende die' seisoen gedoen nie, In die 1998/99 seisoen is geen voordeel van snoei op vruggrootte waargeneem nie. Snoei moet dus opgevolg word deur handuitdunning van vruggies. Laastens is daar na die effek van kunsmatige uitdun van blomtrosse op vruggrootte van 'Royal Gala' appels gekyk. Individuele takke is soos volg gesnoei: (a) kontrole, (b) 25 % verwydering van spore, (c) 50 % verwydering van spore, en (d) 75 % verwydering van spore. Geen opvolg handuitdunning is gedoen nie. Die uitdun tegniek het nie die vruggrootte, - kleur of die hoeveelheid en ontwikkeling van saad beïnvloed nie. Met die 50 % en 75 % verwydering is daar soos verwag minder vrugte geoes. Die rede dat geen vruggrootte verbetering gevind is nie kan moontlik daaraan toegeskryf word dat geen opvolg handuitdunning toegepas is nie.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Limited research is available on the effect of mulches on established orchards. Most of the information available stems from research conducted in newly planted orchards or on annual crops such as green peppers and strawberries under greenhouse conditions. To increase the current knowledge on the effect of mulches in established orchards, two field trials were conducted on 14 year old „Cripps‟ Pink‟ orchards. The one trial concentrated on the influence of mulches on the root environment and the other trial on the effect of mulches on growth, yield and fruit quality. Both trials were conducted at Lourensford Estate near Somerset West, but the sites differed in soil texture between lighter soil (Tukulu) and heavier soil (Clovelly). Four different mulches were used viz. compost, wood chips, vermi-castings (topped with thin layer of woodchips) and a woven geotextile fabric. These four treatments were compared to an un-mulched control, managed according to industry norms. After reducing irrigation volume in the 2010/2011 season, with a further reduction in the 2011/2012 season, more significant differences were obtained in nutrient levels of fruit and leaves compared to the 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 seasons of the trial. Leaf and fruit nutrients showed significant differences in both sites, but the differences were more pronounced on the lighter soil. At the heavier soil site, the vermi-castings, woodchips and compost treatments increased fruit phosphorus (P) during 2010/2011 and the control treatment increased fruit boron (B) during 2011/2012. Only leaf magnesium (Mg) was increased by woodchips and vermi-castings in 2011/2012 at this site. In the lighter soil site, the control treatment had the highest fruit B levels in 2010/2011 while the vermi-castings and the woodchips treatments had the highest fruit P levels in 2011/2012. For the same site, vermi-casting and compost treatments improved leaf potassium (K) uptake in 2010/2011 and 2011/2012, whereas woodchips and geotextile significantly improved leaf copper (Cu) uptake in 2010/2011 compared to the control. To determine if applied nutrients were trapped in the organic mulches over time, leading to a deficiency in the soil and eventually the tree, a mineral analysis was conducted on the organic mulches at the end of each season. Results of the two seasons indicated that vermi-castings contained higher total nutrient levels than the other two organic mulches, but the difference in nutrient levels were shown not to be directly related to the fertilisers applied during each season. In the case of vermi-castings, nutrient quantities in the original material applied at the beginning of each season were higher than those of the other organic mulches. The higher nutrient levels in organic in comparison to inorganic mulches were however not reflected in the fruit and leaf mineral analysis of these treatments. The overall treatment effect in terms of changes in nutrient levels in the tree became less significant when trees were over irrigated. This became evident as the differences between mulching treatments increased as the irrigation was reduced during the season, indicating the masking effect of irrigation on mulching. Evaluating the effect of mulches on growth, yield and fruit quality showed significant differences only at the heavier soil site. The vermi-casting treatment had significantly higher yield efficiencies than the control for the 2010/2011 season. Compost had the lowest yield efficiency at both sites, also during the previous two seasons that formed part of an earlier study (Kotze 2012). In 2011/2012, the compost treatment also showed significantly higher shoot growth than the control. Compost therefore could increase vegetative growth in established orchards on a heavier soil after application for four seasons. Taking the cost of mulching into account, wood chips are the only treatment that can be recommended without compromising fruit quality. Wood chips will sustain or even improve yield efficiency in an established orchard on especially heavier soil. Future research should study the effect of different amounts of irrigation on the various mulches, as the effect of irrigation was not evaluated in this study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Beperkte navorsing is beskikbaar oor die effek van deklae op bestaande boorde. Die meeste bestaande inligting is gegrond op proewe wat uitgevoer is op nuut aangeplante boorde of op eenjarige gewasse, soos groenrissies en aarbeie, onder kweekhuis toestande. Om bestaande kennis aan te vul rakende die effek van deklae op vrugproduksie en -kwaliteit in bestaande boorde, is twee veldproewe geloots in 14-jaar-oue „Cripps‟ Pink‟ appelboorde. Die een proef het gekonsentreer op die invloed van deklae op die wortel omgewing en die ander proef, op die effek van deklae op groei, opbrengs en vrugkwaliteit. Beide proewe is uitgevoer op Lourensford Landgoed naby Somerset-Wes en twee verskillende grondtipes is hiervoor gebruik: „n ligte grond (Tukulu) en swaarder grond (Clovelly). Vier verskillende deklaagtipes is gebruik naamlik: kompos, houtspaanders, „vermi-castings‟ (bedek met „n dun lagie houtspaanders) en geweefde geotekstiel materiaal. Hierdie vier behandelings is vergelyk met „n onbedekte kontrole wat volgens industrie norm bestuur is. Nadat die besproeiingsvolume verminder is in 2010/2011 en daarna weer in 2011/2012, het meer betekenisvolle verskille tussen behandelings voorgekom in nutriënt-vlakke van vrugte en blare in vergelyking met die eerste twee jaar van die proef (2008/2009 en 2009/2010). Blaar en vrug nutrient-vlakke het betekenisvolle verskille in beide persele getoon, maar die verskille was meer duidelik in die ligte grondtip. In die swaarder grond perseel het die „vermi-castings‟, houtspaanders- en kompos behandelings die vrug fosfaatvlakke (P) betekenisvol verhoog in 2010/2011. In die kontrole behandeling was vrug boorvlakke (B) betekenisvol hoër as die ander behandelings in 2011/2012. In hierdie perseel is net magnesium-vlakke (Mg) in die blare betekenisvol verhoog deur die houtspaanders- en „vermi-castings‟ behandelings in 2011/2012. In die ligte grond perseel het die kontrole behandeling die hoogste vrug B-vlakke in 2010/2011 gehad en die „vermi-castings‟ en houtspaander-behandelings gesamentlik, die hoogste vrug P-vlakke in 2011/2012. Die „vermi-casting‟ en kompos behandelings het kalium-vlakke (K) opname in die blare in 2010/2011 en 2011/2012 verbeter, terwyl die houtspaanders- en geotekstiel behandelings die koper-vlakke (Cu) in die blare in 2010/2011 verbeter het. Om te bepaal of die toediening van voedingstowwe oor tyd kan lei tot die „vashou‟ daarvan in „n organiese deklaag en dan tekorte van sekere nutriënte in die grond en uiteindelik die boom kan veroorsaak, is „n mineral analise van die organiese deklae uitgevoer aan die einde van beide seisoene. Resultate van die twee seisoene het getoon dat „vermi-castings‟ hoër totale nutrient-vlakke gehad het as die ander organiese deklae, maar die nutrient-vlakke was nie direk verwant aan die toegediende voedingstowwe nie. In die geval van „vermi-castings‟, was nutrient-vlakke van die moedermateriaal, wat toegedien is aan die begin van die seisoen, hoër as die van die ander organiese deklae. Hierdie hoër nutrient-vlakke van die organiese teenoor anorganiese behandelings, is nie gereflekteer in hoër nutrient-vlakke in die vrug- en blaar mineraal analises van die bome nie. Behandelings effekte rakende veranderinge in nutrient-vlakke in die boom, nadat die besproeiing verminder is, het verander in vergelyking met die van die vorige twee seisoene en is „n aanduiding van die verbloemende invloed van besproeiing op die prestasie van deklae. Evaluasie van die effek van deklae op groei, opbrengs en vrugkwaliteit het net betekenisvolle verskille in die swaarder grond perseel getoon. Die „vermi-casting‟-behandeling het „n betekenisvolle hoër opbrengseffektiwiteit as die kontrole getoon in 2010/2011. Kompos het die laagste opbrengseffektiwiteit in beide persele gehad en het resultate van die vorige twee seisoene van Kotze (2012) bevestig. Die betekenisvolle hoër lootgroei van kompos as die ander behandelings het net in 2011/2012 voorgekom. Kompos kan dus groei verhoog in „n gevestigde boord, in „n swaarder grond, indien besproeiing optimaal is. In terme van kostes, word die gebruik van houtspaanders as deklaag voorgestel vir „n gevestigde boord met „n swaar slik leem grond, aangesien daar geen nadelige effek op vrugkwaliteit was met die behandeling nie en die opbrengseffektiwiteit van die bome gehandhaaf en selfs verbeter is. Toekomstige navorsing kan die effek van besproeiing op verskillende deklaag tipes bestudeer, aangesien die bestaande proef dit nie kon aanspreek nie.

This thesis examines the existence, contribution and recognition of Scottish gardening women for the period 1800 to 1930. The focus was conceived in response to the lack of attention given to female Scottish gardeners in traditional narratives of Britain’s, and more specifically, Scotland’s gardening history. Despite evidence to suggest that women have participated in gardening since the development of the earliest gardens, canonical narratives reveal a preoccupation with white, male, often elite plantsmen, many of whom were Scottish, that pay little or no attention to female involvement. The study begins by considering the degree to which Scotland’s gardening men were successful by unpacking their role and influence, how they were able to make a contribution to gardening and the ways in which they were recognised. This is followed by an assessment of the relative invisibility of women within historical gardening narratives. The recent emergence of feminist studies concentrating on the work of women gardeners has helped to correct this imbalance, but their primary focus on English women has highlighted the disparity between the growing awareness of female gardeners in England and the continuing obscurity of their Scottish counterparts. At the heart of this research is an in-depth biographical analysis of thirteen gardening women, which uncovers their work and contributes to an understanding of the history of women gardeners in Scotland at a time when gardening was dominated by men and undergoing a period of growth and professionalisation. The thesis demonstrates that the women went beyond the confines of their own gardens and achieved within the wider, public sphere of horticulture in Scotland. Some made significant collections of seeds and plants, whilst others used their skills as nurserywomen to cultivate them and, in so doing, they played a part in our knowledge and understanding of plant taxonomy. The transition from amateur gardener to professional status was also achieved and, based on the evidence found within this study, some women were instrumental in pioneering women’s entry into professional gardening. However, few were recognised by the horticultural establishment either during their lifetime or posthumously. This thesis sets the women within their cultural context and addresses the impact of factors such as social class, education, family obligations and gendered prejudice on their ability to achieve and the extent to which their work was recognised in comparison to that of their male contemporaries. As a result, it fills the gaps in our knowledge and understanding of Scotland’s gardening women and provides evidence on which to refute the suggestion that their elision from traditional narratives of Scottish garden history is justified.

Thesis (MTech (Horticulture))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2007. / Gethyllis multifo/ia and Gethyl/is villose (Family: AMARYLLIDACEAE) are indigenous geophytes, growing naturally in the Worcester area, Western Cape. G. muliiiolie falls in the Vulnerable category of the Red Data List of Southern African Plants while G. vil/osa is not threatened at all. Both these species are winter growers and start their growing phase between March and April. These bulbs start their dormant phase between September and October when their leaves start to die down. Flowers of both species are short-lived and borne towards the end of November and early December when no leaves are present. The leaves and berries are simultaneously pushed above ground at the onset of the new growing phase. The fruit of some Gethyl/is species is sweet, juicy, pleasantly aromatic and good to eat and has medicinal properties for the cure of various ailments. The genus is difficult to propagate asexually and very little is known about its propagation and cultivation. The fragrance and medicinal value of the fruit of G. multifolia necessitates future research in the commercial production of this species. A habitat observation study of the two species was conducted to assess the vulnerable status of G. multitolie. Asexual propagation experiments were conducted to find ways of reproducing these two species successfully. A hydro culture study was also conducted to ascertain whether this method of cultivation could be incorporated in the general cultivation of the two species. Finally an in vitro propagation study was conducted to look at faster methods of reproducing these two species. This is of extreme importance in the conservation of the vulnerable G. multitolie. Leaf, root and basal plate cuttings were unsuccessful with no rooting in both species. G. mulfifo/ia bulbs were propagated successfully using twin scaling, bulb cuttings, scooping and scoring propagation techniques with between 80% and 100% rooting success. G. vil/osa was unsuccessful using the above propagation techniques with a 0 - 40% rooting rate. Although Gefhyl/is species in general are sensitive to over-watering, the hydro culture experiment with the sub-irrigation system and leca pellet medium proved to be an effective method of cultivating both species throughout the growing phase. G. mulfifo/ia proved to be unsuccessful during the initial in vitro propagation experiments with no surviving explants during the initiation phase. Results improved with an increased number of trials. It is possible to grow both species by means of in vitro propagation, but more emphasis in future research, should be placed on the multiplication aspect of G. mu/tifo/ia, since not many new buibiets were produced. It was observed through this study that grazing domestic livestock, urban expansion (this includes agricultural extension) and in some cases the lack of interest shown in our indigenous plant species, are some of the main factors influencing the decline in numbers of this species. It is also recommended that more emphasis be placed on the conservation of South Africa's indigenous flora and that the vulnerable status of G. multifolia according to The Red Data List of Southern African Plants, be changed to the "Endangered category" as the factors causing its decline continue to increase.

Syncarpha recurvata (L.f.) B. Nord. (Asteraceae, Gnaphalieae) is listed as a vulnerable (intermediate priority) species. The propagation methods of achene germination, stem cuttings, air layering and micropropagation were investigated to obtain an efficient propagation method. Smoke water dilutions of 1:100, 1:50 and 1:10 significantly increased germination, with the 1:100 smoke water dilutions showing the highest germination percentage (22.4 percent). Achenes collected between August and October 2005 showed higher germination and viability than achenes collected between May and July 2006. Fifty percent of the stem cuttings and 32 percent of the airlayered branches rooted. Embryo culture was the only successful culture type out of the four attempted. Two embryos germinated and four became photosynthetic. Two of the germinated embryos also produced callus cells, a medium supplemented with 5 μM IAA may be used to test for a suitable plant regulator for organogenesis or embryogenesis. Syncarpha recurvata plants were also transplanted into pots and 60 percent survived. A growth rate of 1.466 mm y-1 was obtained from total shoot length measurements. In this study, it was found that air-layering branches of transplanted Syncarpha recurvata plants is the most efficient propagation method.

Orientador: Antonio Ismael Inácio Cardoso / Banca: Camila Paula Rossetto Pescatori Jacon / Banca: Felipe Oliveira Magro / Resumo: Objetivou-se com este trabalho avaliar a produção, o teor e o acúmulo de macronutrientes pelos frutos de berinjela em sistema orgânico com a utilização de diferentes biofertilizantes, sendo dividido em dois capítulos. Para a realização do experimento foi utilizado o híbrido Sharapova RZ. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos ao acaso, com seis repetições, sendo estudados seis tratamentos: controle (sem fertirrigação), fertirrigação com adubos inorgânicos, fertirrigação com biofertilizante a base de torta de mamona (1Kg para cada 15 L de água) (TM1), fertirrigação com biofertilizante a base de esterco de galinha (1 Kg para cada 15 L de água) (EG1), fertirrigação com biofertilizante a base de torta de mamona mais esterco de galinha (1 Kg de cada ingrediente para cada 15 L de água) (TM1+EG1) e fertirrigação com biofertilizante a base de torta de mamona mais esterco de galinha (2 Kg de cada ingrediente para cada 15 L de água) (TM2+EG2). Foram realizadas as seguintes avaliações: número de folhas por planta, altura das plantas, intensidade de cor verde (Spad), número de frutos totais e comerciais, massa fresca de frutos totais e comerciais por planta, massa média de frutos comerciais, comprimento, diâmetro médio de frutos comerciais e teor e acúmulo de macronutrientes nos frutos. Para todas as variáveis de produção (número e massa de frutos, total e comercial, por planta) avaliadas, o tratamento com biofertilizante TM2+EG2 obteve maior média. Para a massa média de frutos, o tra... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The objective of this work was to evaluate the production, content and accumulation of macronutrients by eggplant fruits in an organic production system with fertigation with different biofertilizers. The hybrid Sharapova RZ was used. The experimental design was a randomized complete block, with six replications, and six treatments: without fertigation (control), fertigation with inorganic fertilizers, fertigation with biofertilizer based on castor bean cake (1 kg for each 15 L of water) (CBC1), fertigation with biofertilizer based on chicken manure (1 kg for each 15 L of water) (CM1), biofertilizer based on castor bean cake plus chicken manure (1 kg of each ingredient for each 15 L of water) (CBC1+CM1) and biofertilizer based on castor bean cake more chicken manure (2 kg of each ingredient for each 15 L of water) (CBC2+CM2). The following evaluations were carried out: number of leaves per plant, height of plants, chlorophyll content (Spad), number of total and commercial fruits, fresh weight of total and commercial fruits per plant, average fruit weight, length and mean diameter of commercial fruits, macronutrient content and accumulation in fruits. For all production variables (number and weight of fruits, total and commercial, per plant) evaluated, the treatment with biofertilizer based on castor bean cake plus chicken manure (2 kg of each ingredient) obtained a higher average. For the average fruit weight, this treatment did not differ from the treatments with biofertilizer based on castor bean cake and biofertilizer based on chicken manure. For the macronutrient contents in the fruits, there was difference only for P and S, being the highest mean in the P content found in the control treatment (3.21 g kg-1 of dry matter) and for S the highest average was for treatment with biofertilizer based on castor bean cake (1.73 g kg-1 of dry matter). The decreasing order of macronutrient content ... / Mestre

The sweet cherry crop has always been the number one fruit crop in Utah until the last three or four years when it shifted to second place due to severe spring frosts. However, the outlook for its continued success is still very good. Even though there are drawbacks such as virus infestations, spring frosts, nutritional disorders, cracking, doubling, and bird injury, new plantings are being made each year in each of the important fruit producing counties. Utah is also important in the national production of sweet cherries and is presently sixth in the nation.

Many deciduous trees enter a stage each year when their visible growth ceases. This is not always associated with cold weather or lack of water, and may occur with many species in mid-to-late summer. Trees entering this phase are said to be in rest. Rest is caused when internal factors are unfavorable for growth, while dormancy is defined as external factors being adverse for growth.

White clover (Trifolium repens) is a common and difficult weed to control in turfgrass as it is a highly visible and unsightly weed that disrupts the uniformity of the turfgrass surface. This weed is a serious problem in the turfgrass industry in California and there is a need for better methods of control. With more regulations on pesticides and less information about efficient application techniques, controlling white clover with available herbicides can be difficult. Compatibility trials were conducted during the summer of 2005 to determine the compatibility of the herbicides and adjuvants planned for use in subsequent greenhouse and field trials. A greenhouse trial was conducted in the spring of 2006, followed by field trials in fall of 2006 and spring of 2007 to determine the efficacy of two herbicides on white clover when combined with each of three adjuvants and two nozzles. Results showed the nozzles to have no significant effect on phytotoxicity to white clover in the greenhouse trial, while some of the herbicides and adjuvants significantly increased phytotoxicity to white clover. In the field trials, adjuvants had no effect on phytotoxicity, while some herbicides and nozzles significantly increased phytotoxicity to white clover, perennial ryegrass and common bermudagrass. Information about the combination of herbicides, adjuvants and nozzles will help turfgrass managers to improve their management of white clover in turfgrass.