This thesis focuses on mechanisms and processes underlying spatial patterns of resistance and virulence and on local adaptations in plant–parasite interactions. The model system used comprises the plant host Salix triandra, the pathogenic rust fungus Melampsora amygdalinae, the leaf beetle Gonioctena linnaeana, and the galler Pontania triandrae. In this work, I (1) emphasize the most important factors determining the outcome of a plant–pathogen interaction, and the types of systems in which local adaptations can be expected, (2) examine the resistance structures of different populations of S. triandra, and whether the leaf beetle G. linnaeana responds to the local conditions of the populations of S. triandra in Sweden, and (3) address whether the distribution of parasites on S. triandra can be explained by the plant content of secondary metabolites. A review of several studies of the subject leads to the conclusion that adaptation of pathogens to their local hosts is more likely to be found in systems in which the pathogen is host-specific, non-systemic, and has a larger dispersal range and evolutionary potential than its host does. Furthermore, the scale of the study must be adjusted to that of the pathogen’s local population distribution. In addition, the temporary nature of host–pathogen interactions influences the importance of sample size, and too-small sample sizes can lower the chance of finding local adaptations, even though they may have evolved in a given system. The results of an inoculation experiment using material from physically isolated natural populations of S. triandra and M. amygdalinae confirm the importance of previous conclusions. Spatial variation in the resistance structure of S. triandra also has effects on the insect herbivore G. linnaeana, which has responded by adapting to the local hosts. However, local differences in secondary chemistry affect different parasites in different ways, and while P. triandrae is attracted by high levels of phenolic compounds, including tannins, M. amygdalinae and G. linnaeana are more rarely found on plant individuals with high concentrations of tannins. In addition, brood deposition by adult females of G. linnaeana and the performance of larvae are positively affected by luteolin-7-glucoside and an additional unidentified flavonoid, whereas they are negatively affected by the presence of (+)-catechin and high levels of tannins. Our results also show that plants traits that provide resistance to one type of parasite do not necessarily provide resistance to others. This indicates that different natural enemies potentially assert divergent selection pressure on S. triandra phenotypes which can be important for maintaining phenotypic variation in plant species.

L’expression du phénotype des organismes dépend en partie d’organismes symbiotiques avec qui ils sont en interaction étroite. Selon le mode de transmission du symbiote, ce dernier va être en conflit d’intérêt plus ou moins intense avec l’hôte pour l’expression du phénotype, conduisant parfois le symbiote à évoluer vers la manipulation du phénotype de l’hôte. Nous avons tenté d’identifier différents facteurs génétiques et environnementaux influençant l’expression et l’évolution de la manipulation chez l’insecte parasitoïde de larves de drosophiles, Leptopilina boulardi, et son virus manipulateur du comportement, LbFV. Ce virus bénéficie d’une transmission mixte, verticale et horizontale, cette dernière étant favorisée par l’induction de superparasitisme induite par le virus. L’étude de la contribution du génotype du parasitoïde dans l’expression de la manipulation a révélé la présence de gènes de résistance partielle à la manipulation. Le potentiel évolutif de cette résistance a ensuite été évalué par des expériences d’évolution expérimentale. Nous avons également montré que LbFV augmente la virulence du parasitoïde envers les larves de drosophiles, révélant ainsi une évolution vers une forme de mutualisme sur ce trait. Par ailleurs, le travail montre qu’un même parasitoïde peut être non seulement infecté par plusieurs souches du virus LbFV mais également infecté par un virus à ARN, décrit pour la première fois dans cette thèse. La transmission verticale, la prévalence élevée et les forts effets phénotypiques de ce virus soulignent de nouveau l’importance des virus dans l’expression du phénotype en population naturelle. / The expression of the phenotype of an individual depends partly on the presence of symbiotic organisms with which it engages in intimate interactions. According to the symbiont’s mode of transmission, the conflict of interest between the host and its symbiont for the expression of the phenotype can be more or less stronger, sometimes leading to the evolution of manipulation of the host phenotype by the symbiont. We attempted to identify different genetic and environmental factors influencing the expression and the evolution of manipulation in the Drosophila parasitoid wasp, Leptopilina boulardi, and its behavior manipulating virus, LbFV. The virus undergoes both vertical and horizontal transmission, the latter being favoured by the induction of superparasitism behaviour by the virus. The study of the contribution of the parasitoid genotype to the expression of the manipulation revealed a polymorphism in the resistance to the manipulation. The evolutionary potential of this resistance was then investigated using a protocol of experimental evolution. We also demonstrated that LbFV increases the virulence of the parasitoid towards its Drosophila host, revealing a form of mutualistic interaction on this trait. Additionally, we showed that an individual parasitoid can be coinfected by several LbFV strains but also by an RNA virus, described for the first time in this thesis. The vertical transmission, the high prevalence and the strong phenotypic effects of this new virus further highlights the importance of viruses in the expression of the phenotype in natural populations.

Der parasitische Nematode Acanthocheilonema viteae kann die Immunantwort seines Wirtes abschwächen, indem er in diesem die Produktion immun-regulatorischer Cytokine Interleukin-10 (IL10) induziert. In dieser Arbeit entwickelte ich spezifische mathematische Modelle um die Mechanismen der IL10 Regulation zu erforschen. Die Annahmen des Modells waren: 1) Av17, ein immun-modulatorisches Protein von A. viteae, zur Phosphorylierung der MAP-Kinasen ERK und p38 führt; 2) Av17 induzierte IL10 ist ERK und p38 abhängig. Beide Annahmen waren in Übereinstimmung mit experimentellen Ergebnissen zur Aktivierung von ERK and p38. Weiter habe ich mehrere Signalregulationsmodelle getestet und eine Methode entwickelt, die theoretische und experimentelle Ansätze kombiniert. Von hier aus konnte ich ein Modell auswählen, dass unabhängige experimentelle Daten korrekt vorhersagt. Modelle selection identifizierten die Duale-Spezifizität Kinasen (DUSP) als integrale Rückkopplungsregulatoren dieses Systems. Eine Sensitivitätsanalyse zeigte, dass p38 durch DUSP, ERK beeinflusst, das Gegenteil aber nicht. Dieser Befund legt eine autokrine Rückkopplung der Signalkomponenten nahe, die auch experimentell bestätigt werden konnte. Allgemein müssen die immunoregulatorischen Mechanismen im Wirt robust gegen Störungen, z.B. durch Parasiten wie A. viteae, sein. Dies veranlasste mich mit Hilfe eines Monte-Carlo Ansatzes die Robustheit der ausgewählten Modelle gegenüber Variationen zu testen. Ich verglich das zuvor ausgewählte Modell und ein Modell mit transienter Rückkopplung. Das Resultat ließ darauf schließen, dass in diesem Fall die integrale Rückkopplung robuster gegenüber Variationen ist als eine transiente Rückkopplung. Insgesamt verbindet der systembiologische Ansatz meiner Arbeit erfolgreich theoretisches Wissen mit experimenteller Expertise um einen Mechanismus vorzuschlagen, der beschreibt, wie der Parasit A. viteae mit Makrophagen seines Wirtes interagiert, um IL10 Exprimierung zu induzieren. / The parasitic nematode Acanthocheilonema viteae can downregulate the immune response of its host by inducing immunoregulatory cytokines such as interleukin-10 (IL10). In this thesis, I developed specific mathematical models to investigate IL10 regulation mechanisms. These models assumed that Av17, an immunomodulatory protein secreted by A.viteae, leads to the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK) ERK and p38 phosphorylation and that IL10 transient expression was dependent on the activation of both MAP kinases. These assumptions were validated with experimental data on ERK and p38 activation. Further, I tested alternative ways of signalling regulation and developed a method of model selection that combines the theoretical predictions with experimental evidences. Model selection identified dual specificity phosphatase (DUSP) as integral feedback regulators in this system. Dedicated experiments showed that DUSP1 was responsible for regulation of ERK and p38 phosphorylation and controlled IL10 expression in this system. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis suggested that p38 affects ERK via DUSP, but ERK does not affect p38, revealing a negative feedback between the components. This model prediction was validated experimentally. Generally, host immune regulation mechanisms should be robust against variations, e.g., by parasites like A. viteae. This prompted me to test the robustness of the selected model against noise, by comparing it with a transient feedback model. The results suggest that the integral feedback model is more robust against noise than the transient feedback model, in the case under study. In summary, based on a systems biology approach that successfully combines theoretical and experimental expertise, this thesis proposes a mechanism that describes how the parasite A. viteae interacts with its host macrophages to induce IL10 expression.

Les parasites sont une partie très importante des écosystèmes, néanmoins, dans certains cas tels que l’aquaculture ils causent des épidémies. Dans cette thèse j’ai étudié les interactions hôte-parasite chez les poissons coralliens, dans les milieux naturels et les milieux aquacoles. J’ai étudié l’arrangement des communautés de 13 espèces de monogènes de 34 espèces de poissons papillon dans l’Indo-Pacifique. Les résultats montrent qu’il existe un patron de distribution stable des espèces, ce qui, combiné avec les résultats de l’étude biogéographique, suggère que la spécificité parasitaire observée a pu se développer tout au long des épisodes biogéographiques passés. Notamment, seule une espèce, Chaetodon lunulatus, n’est jamais parasitée. J’ai étudié le mucus des poissons qui est décrit comme la première ligne de défense contre des agressions externes, pour analyser quels facteurs de C. lunulatus pourraient être reliés à l’absence des parasites. Le microbiome et le métabolome du mucus branchial des poissons papillons montrent une grande diversité. C. lunulatus présente une plus grande abondance de Fusobactéries qui est corrélée avec une surexpression de peptides pouvant dériver de la β-hémoglobine. La purification, la synthèse et l’évaluation des activités antiparasitaires des peptides sont en cours au laboratoire. J’ai aussi étudié l’utilisation des plantes médicinales comme alternative à des traitements chimiques dans l’aquaculture. J’ai testé l’activité antibactérienne et immunostimulatrice de plusieurs plantes et algues polynésiennes. L’algue rouge Asparagopsis taxiformis montre de fortes activités antibactériennes sur Vibrio harveyi et Tenacibaculum maritimum et induit une augmentation de l’expression de deux gènes liés à l’immunité chez Platax orbicularis. / Fish parasites are an important part of ecosystems, however, in certain cases such as in aquaculture they can cause severe disease outbreaks. In this thesis I have studied host-parasite interactions in coral reef fishes, both in the natural and culture environments. I have studied the distribution of 13 dactylogyrid species from 34 butterflyfishes in the Indo West-Pacific. Composition of dactylogyrid communities was host specific and together with the biogeography results, where a turnover in the main Haliotrema species was observed, suggest that parasite specificity might result from host-parasite coevolution derived from past biogeographical episodes. Only one butterflyfish species, Chaetodon lunulatus, was never found parasitized by gill monogeneans. I have studied the butterflyfish mucus, which is the first barrier against pathogens, to investigate the C. lunulatus factors that might be related to the monogenean absence. Butterflyfish gill microbiome and metabolome revealed a high diversity. C. lunulatus presented a significantly higher abundance of Fusobacteria which was correlated to a higher expression of potentially derived β-hemoglobin peptides. Synthesis and evaluation of the peptide antiparasitic activities are being performed in the laboratory. I have also studied the use of medicinal plants as an alternative to chemotherapy in fish aquaculture. I investigated the antibacterial and immunostimulant activities of several local Polynesian plants and algae, and I found that Asparagopsis taxiformis displayed a potent antibacterial activity against Vibrio harveyi and Tenacibaculum maritmum and increased expression of two immune-related genes in Platax orbicularis.

<p>This thesis focuses on mechanisms and processes underlying spatial patterns of resistance and virulence and on local adaptations in plant–parasite interactions. The model system used comprises the plant host Salix triandra, the pathogenic rust fungus Melampsora amygdalinae, the leaf beetle Gonioctena linnaeana, and the galler Pontania triandrae. In this work, I (1) emphasize the most important factors determining the outcome of a plant–pathogen interaction, and the types of systems in which local adaptations can be expected, (2) examine the resistance structures of different populations of S. triandra, and whether the leaf beetle G. linnaeana responds to the local conditions of the populations of S. triandra in Sweden, and (3) address whether the distribution of parasites on S. triandra can be explained by the plant content of secondary metabolites.</p><p>A review of several studies of the subject leads to the conclusion that adaptation of pathogens to their local hosts is more likely to be found in systems in which the pathogen is host-specific, non-systemic, and has a larger dispersal range and evolutionary potential than its host does. Furthermore, the scale of the study must be adjusted to that of the pathogen’s local population distribution. In addition, the temporary nature of host–pathogen interactions influences the importance of sample size, and too-small sample sizes can lower the chance of finding local adaptations, even though they may have evolved in a given system. The results of an inoculation experiment using material from physically isolated natural populations of S. triandra and M. amygdalinae confirm the importance of previous conclusions.</p><p>Spatial variation in the resistance structure of S. triandra also has effects on the insect herbivore G. linnaeana, which has responded by adapting to the local hosts. However, local differences in secondary chemistry affect different parasites in different ways, and while P. triandrae is attracted by high levels of phenolic compounds, including tannins, M. amygdalinae and G. linnaeana are more rarely found on plant individuals with high concentrations of tannins. In addition, brood deposition by adult females of G. linnaeana and the performance of larvae are positively affected by luteolin-7-glucoside and an additional unidentified flavonoid, whereas they are negatively affected by the presence of (+)-catechin and high levels of tannins.</p><p>Our results also show that plants traits that provide resistance to one type of parasite do not necessarily provide resistance to others. This indicates that different natural enemies potentially assert divergent selection pressure on S. triandra phenotypes which can be important for maintaining phenotypic variation in plant species.</p>

Host-Associated Differentiation (HAD) is the formation of genetically divergent hostassociated lineages maintained by ecological isolation. HAD is potentially an important route to ecological speciation in parasites including many insects. While HAD case studies are accumulating, there is a dearth of negative results in the literature making it difficult to know how common the phenomenon really is or whether there are specific traits of parasites which promote HAD. To address these two problems, studies are needed which both publish negative results (i.e., parasites not showing HAD) and test for HAD in multiple parasite species on the same pair of host species (i.e., control for host plant effects). In this study, HAD was tested in three species of herbivorous insects and one parasitoid species on the same two host tree species: pecan and water hickory. The insects were selected based on the presence or absence of two traits, parthenogenesis and endophagy. A test for HAD was considered “positive” when population substructure was explained by host-association. To test for the presence of HAD, insects were sampled sympatrically to eliminate geographical isolation as a confounding factor, sampling was replicated spatially to assure that HAD persisted, and multiple loci were sampled from each individual. Genetic data was analyzed using cluster analyses. HAD was found in both pecan leaf phylloxera and yellow pecan aphid but not in pecan bud moth or in the parasitoid of the yellow pecan aphid, Aphelinus perpallidus. Interestingly, both taxa showing HAD are parthenogenetic and both taxa not showing HAD reproduce sexually. Species showing HAD were tested for the presence of a pre-mating reproductive isolating mechanism (RIM) which could be maintaining HAD despite the potential for gene flow. Selection against migrants to the alternative host was tested in yellow pecan aphid using a no-choice fitness experiment. The overall contribution of this RIM to total isolation was positive and ranged from 0.614 to 0.850. The RIM of “habitat preference” was tested in pecan leaf phylloxera using a dual-choice preference experiment. In this species, preference was only detected for phylloxera originating from water hickory suggesting that host discrimination ability may be a less important factor promoting differentiation in phylloxera.

Les interactions hôte – parasites sont des systèmes qui affectent probablement la totalité des êtres vivants et constituent un facteur clé dans la compréhension de la dynamique des maladies infectieuses. On a abordé cette problématique en utilisant le système Fasciola hepatica/Lymnaeidae dans sur l'île de Cuba. Cette thèse utilise une approche basée sur différentes disciplines de la biologie comme l’écologie des populations (distribution et abondances de mollusques hôtes intermédiaires), l'écologie parasitaire (données de prévalences naturelles de parasites chez les hôtes), la génétique des populations en utilisant des marqueurs microsatellites (tant pour le parasite que pour les mollusques hôtes), et des études de susceptibilité et compatibilité douve/limnée.En ce qui concerne la diversité génétique du parasite, une très haute diversité et une forte probabilité d’allofécondation ont été observées. En revanche, on n’a pas trouvé de différentiation significatives entre souches. Les taux d’infection chez le bétail sont très élevés.Pour ce qui est de la biologie des populations des limnées hôtes, on a cartographié la distribution des deux espèces présentes à Cuba : Galba cubensis qui est très répandue et Pseudosuccinea columella qui n'est présente que dans la partie centre-occidentale. Nous avons mis en évidence des différences concernant les types d’habitats préférés pour chaque espèce : G. cubensis est plus plastique écologiquement et se retrouve beaucoup plus dans les sites anthropisés.L'étude des compatibilités douve/mollusque a révélé l’existence de populations avec une résistance naturelle à l’infection par F. hepatica chez la limnée P. columella. Ces populations sont génétiquement différenciées des populations sensibles. La plupart des populations sensibles sont monomorphes avec le même haplotype très répandu. Par contre, on a observé une diversité génétique plus importante chez G. cubensis qui suggère un temps évolutif plus ancien à Cuba. L’échantillonnage fait dans une aire de où la fasciolose sévit fortement chez le bétail a révélé un très faible taux d’infection naturel chez les limnées, mais avec de fortes variations d'intensités. Différentes combinaisons douve/limnée sympatriques et allopatriques testées expérimentalement ont montré une compatibilité supérieure de G. cubensis qui suggère une meilleure adaptation aux souches de F. hepatica cubaines.Les résultats obtenus montrent que la compréhension de la dynamique des maladies infectieuses ainsi que leur contrôle doivent s’appuyer sur des connaissances très solides de la biologie, écologie, génétique et évolution des systèmes hôtes – parasites. / Host – parasite interactions are biological systems that probably affect every living being. It also constitute a key factor in the understanding of infectious diseases. This subject has been studied using the Fasciola hepatica/Lymnaeidae system in the insular environment of Cuba. This thesis makes a biological multidisciplinary approach through population ecology (distribution and abundance of intermediary hosts snails), infection rates estimations of parasites in their hosts, population genetics using microsatellites markers (for both parasite and snails hosts), and studies of susceptibility and compatibility fluke/snail.The genetic diversity of the parasite is characterized by high values of diversity as well as probability of cross fertilization. However, we failed to detect significant differences between the strains but a highly infection rate is shared in cattle.Regarding the lymnaeid snails, the distribution of the two occurring species is mapped showing that Galba cubensis is widely distributed while Pseudosuccinea columella only exists in central-western Cuba. Both snail species differ in preferred habitat types and G. cubensis displays a higher ecological plasticity commonly observed in heavily human-transformed sites.Differences in host-parasite compatibilities have been revealed. It has been noted the existence of some populations of P. columella with a natural resistance to F. hepatica infection which display a marked differentiation of their population genetic structure compared to susceptible populations. Most susceptible populations are monomorphic with a very common haplotype in Cuba. Conversely, we observed a higher diversity in G. cubensis indicating a larger evolutionary time in Cuba. The sampling conducted in a fasciolosis endemic area revealed very low prevalences in the snail populations. However, strong variation in parasite mean intensity within individuals supports the high infection rates observed in cattle. Different sympatric and allopatric fluke/snail combinations were experimentally tested in which G. cubensis proved to be more compatible and suggest a better adaptation to the circulating F. hepatica in Cuba.Our results show that the understanding of infectious diseases’ dynamics and their effective control must strictly rely in a full knowledge of the biology, ecology, genetics and evolution of host – parasite systems.

Depuis 2006, une recrudescence de cas de protostrongylose, parasitose liée à la présence de nématodes au niveau pulmonaire, apparaît dans le Sud-est de la France au sein de la population de lièvres européens (Lepus europaeus). Le cycle de développement de ces parasites nécessite le passage obligatoire par un hôte intermédiaire connu pour être un mollusque gastéropode terrestre. Notre programme a pour objectif l'étude épidémiologique de la maladie et notamment l'identification des acteurs du cycle parasitaire.Basée sur une analyse morphologique et moléculaire, nous identifions : Protostrongylus pulmonalis (Frölich, 1802) fréquemment inventorié en Europe et P. oryctolagi Babos, 1955, décrit à une seule occasion en Hongrie en 1955, comme les agents responsables de la protostrongylose en France. Cette étude a permis de déposer de nouvelles séquences d'ADN de référence, utiles pour l'identification ultérieure de nos espèces parasites, en particulier les stades larvaires et sur lesquelles nous nous sommes basées pour la reconnaissance des hôtes intermédiaires intervenant dans le cycle naturel. Sur 3622 mollusques analysés, nous avons mis en évidence des larves de stade 3 (P. pulmonalis et P. oryctolagi) à partir de 18 individus, appartenant à la famille des Hygromiidae et dont l'identification spécifique repose sur différents marqueurs moléculaires (de loin préférables aux critères morphologiques). Au sein des populations de lièvres, nous identifions l'âge et l'environnement, en lien avec la répartition des hôtes intermédiaires comme les facteurs de risque de la maladie. Le parasitisme, concernant près de 55% des animaux, n'a pas eu d'effet mesurable sur l'état général de l'hôte, mais pourrait être impliquée dans une diminution de la fécondité des hases, suggérant un impact potentiel sur les dynamiques de populations de lièvres. / Since 2006, in the South-East of France, we observe an increase in the number of hares (Lepus europaeus) suffering from pulmonary protostrongyliasis, which is a parasitic disease caused by nematodes in the lungs. The development cycle of these parasites requires the obligatory pathway through an intermediate host, terrestrial gastropod mollusk. Our goal was the epidemiological study of the disease, particularly the identification of the parasite cycle.Based on morphological and molecular analysis, we identified two causative agents of pulmonary protostrongyliasis in France: Protostrongylus pulmonalis (Frölich, 1802) frequently inventoried in Europe and P. oryctolagi Babos, 1955 described only once in Hungary in 1955. Thus new reference sequences of DNA are available, which is useful for the subsequent identification of our parasite species and particularly for larvae-stage, allowing the recognition of intermediate hosts involved in their natural cycle. In total 3622 terrestrial mollusks were analyzed. We identified three-stage larvae of P. pulmonalis and P. oryctolagi from 18 individuals belonging to the family of Hygromiidae and belonging to several species identified with different molecular markers. In the hare populations, we identify the age and environment (in association with the distribution of intermediate hosts) as risk factors for the disease. The parasite, with approximately 55% of infected animals, had no measurable effect on the health status of the host, but could be involved in a decrease in the fecundity, suggesting a potential impact on population dynamics of hares.

Une des contraintes biotiques majeures de la riziculture de bas-fond au nord du Togo est l’adventice parasite Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Hochst.) Benth. Afin d’évaluer les options stratégiques pour contrôler efficacement R. fistulosa, notre étude a été conduite avec comme principaux objectifs : 1) l’identification de la répartition de R. fistulosa et l’étude des facteurs qui favorisent son infestation, 2) l’étude de l’impact des niveaux d’infestation sur la flore adventice du riz, et 3) la caractérisation des interactions hôte-parasite et de leurs impacts sur le développement de l’hôte et les performances reproductives du parasite. A l’issu des prospections de terrain, les plus fortes infestations ont été retrouvées sur des sols majoritairement à texture sableuse et très pauvres en matière organique. Une flore adventice très diversifiée a été retrouvée en présence de R. fistulosa, certaines adventices pouvant être parasitées et constituer éventuellement un réservoir pour accroître le stock semencier du parasite. En conditions contrôlées, R. fistulosa se développe et se reproduit aussi bien sur le riz que sur la tomate, alors que le soja retarde la reproduction du parasite. La germination des graines de R. fistulosa est maximale en présence de graines de plantes cultivées ou adventices. Les graines nouvellement récoltées ont une dormance de plus de six mois, mais leur germination a été stimulée par la présence de phytohormones. En conclusion, les meilleures stratégies de lutte doivent impliquer le contrôle par les semis tardifs, les rotations culturales avec les légumineuses comme le soja, l’arachide ou le niébé, et les cultures maraîchères. / Main biotic constraints to rain-fed lowland rice cultivation in northern Togo include the parasitic weed Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Hochst.) Benth. In order to evaluate efficient strategies to control R. fistulosa, our study was performed taking into account the following main objectives: 1) Identification of the distribution of R. fistulosa and study of the factors favouring its infestation, 2) Study of the impacts of infestation levels on rice weed communities, and 3) Characterization of the host-parasite interactions and their impacts on the host development and the parasite reproduction. Following fields investigations, highest infestations were observed on sandy soils with low levels of organic matter.In addition, weed flora found in the presence of R. fistulosa was much diversified and some weeds were found to been parasitized and could possibly constitute reservoirs to increase the seed stock of the parasite. In controlled experiments, R. fistulosa grown and reproduced better on rice and tomato crops, than on soybean which delayed the reproduction of the parasite. Germination of R. fistulosa seeds was stimulated in presence of cultivated crops or weeds. New collected seeds shown six months dormancy but their germination was stimulated in presence of phytohormones. In conclusion, the best strategies to control R. fistulosa must include delayed sowing, crop rotation with leguminous species (i.e. soybean, peanut or cowpea) and vegetable cropsKeywords: Rhamphicarpa fistulosa, rice, lowland, parasitism, host-parasite interaction, weeds.

This work allowed the first characterization of the three members of the chloride channel CLC family in T.brucei. The TbCLCs are expressed in the two proliferative stages of the parasite and two of their members appear non-essential. The three TbCLCs act as chloride transporters in X.laevis oocytes and some of their biophysical properties were determined. Furthermore, TbCLC-b appeared to be involved in lysis by the human innate immunity protein apoL-1<p>A novel function of T.brucei adenylate cyclases was discovered in their ability to suppress expression of the innate immunity protein TNF-α. The suppression of the innate response occurs before the first peak of parasitemia and reduces the host ability to control the parasite.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished